Chapter Twenty-NOTES : Nato's Secret Armies by Daniele Ganser

 

NOTES

INTRODUCTION

1 British daily The Times, November 19, 1990.
2 British daily The Observer, November 18, 1990.

1 A TERRORIST ATTACK IN ITALY

1. 1  British daily The Observer, November 18, 1990.

2. 2  Hugh O'Shaughnessy, Gladio: Europe's best kept secret. They were the agents who

   were to 'stay behind' if the Red Army overran Western Europe. But the network that was set up with the best intentions degenerated in some countries into a front for terrorism and far-right political agitation. In: British daily The Observer, June 7, 1992.

3. 3  Secret service researchers Fabrizio Calvi and Frederic Laurent produced probably the best documentary on the Piazza Fontana terror: Piazza Fontana: Storia di un Complotto broadcasted on December 11,1997 at 8:50 p.m. on the Italian state television Rai Due. And shown again in its French version V Orchestre Noir: La Strategie de la tension in two blocks on Tuesday, January 13, 1998, and Wednesday, January 14, 1998, at 20:45 on French Channel Arte. In their documentary they question a large number of witnesses including the judges that for years investigated the massacres, Guido Salvini and Gerardo D'Ambrosio, as well as right-wing extremists Stefano Delle Chiaies, Amos Spiazzi, Guido Giannettini, Vincenzo Vinciguerra, and Captain Labruna, former Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti as well as Victor Marchetti and Marc Wyatt of the CIA.

4. 4  Quoted in Giovanni Fasanella e Claudio Sestieri con Giovanni Pellegrino, Segreto di Stato. La verita da Gladio al caso Moro (Torino: Einaudi Editore, 2000), introduction.

5. 5  Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Puppeteers. Second of total three Francovich Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 17, 1992.

6. 6  Philip Willan, Terrorists 'helped by CIA' to stop rise of left in Italy. In: British daily The Guardian, March 26, 2001. Willan is an expert on US covert action in Italy. He published the very valuable book Puppetmasters. Thr Political Use of Terrorism in Italy (London: Constable, 1991).

7. 7  Senato della Repubblica Italiana. Commissions parlamentare d'inchiesta sul terrorismo in Italia e sulle cause della mancata individuazione dei responsabili delle stragi: Il terrorismo, le stragi ed il contesto storico-politico. The final report of the commission was published under this title in 1995.

8. 8  British daily television news program Newsnight on BBC1 on April 4, 1991.

9. 9  British daily The Observer, June 7, 1992.

259

10 Ed. Vulliamy, Secret agents, freemasons, fascists... and a top-level campaign of

political 'destabilisation': 'Strategy of tension' that brought carnage and cover-up.

In: British daily The Guardian, December 5, 1990.
11 British political magazine Statewatch, January 1991
12Jean-Francois Brozzu-Gentile, L' affaire Gladio (Paris: Editions Albin Michel,

1994), p. 105.

13. 13  Italian political magazine Europeo, November 16, 1990.

14. 14  Ed. Vulliamy, Secret agents, freemasons, fascists... and a top-level campaign of political

    'destabilisation': 'Strategy of tension' that brought carnage and cover-up. In: British

    daily The Guardian, December 5,1990.

15. 15  No author specified, Spinne unterm Schafsfell. In Sudeuropa war die Guerillatruppe

    besonders aktiv - auch bei den Militdrputschen in Griechenland und der Turkei?

    In: German news magazine Der Spiegel, Nr. 48, November 26,1990.

16. 16  Mario Coglitore (ed.), La Notte dei Gladiatori. Omissioni e silenzi della Repubblica

    (Padova: Calcusca Edizioni, 1992), p. 131.

17. 17  Quoted in Coglitore, Gladiatori, p. 132.

18. 18  For an excellent biography of Andreotti, see Regine Igel, Andreotti. Politik zwischen

    Geheimdienst und Mafia (Munchen: Herbig Verlag, 1997),

19. 19  British daily The Guardian, December 5,1990.

20. 20  Leo Muller, Gladio - das Erbe des Kalten Krieges. Der Nato-Geheimbund und sein

    deutscher Vorlaufer (Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1991), p. 26.

21. 21  For a detailed description of the sequence of events see the Italian newspapers

    La Repubblica, Corriere della Sera and La Stampa of October 24,1990.

22. 22  No author specified, 50,000 seek truth about secret team. In: Canadian daily The

    Toronto Star, November 18, 1990.

23Franco Ferraresi, A secret structure codenamed Gladio. In: Italian Politics. A

Review, 1992, p. 30. Ferraresi quotes directly from the document Andreotti had handed over to the parliamentary commission. The Italian daily L'Unita published both the first and the second version of Andreotti's document in a special edition on November 14, 1990. Also Jean Francois Brozzu Gentile gives the full text of Andreotti 'Il SID parallelo - Operazione Gladio' (in French translation). See Gentile, Gladio, Appendix.

24  Ferraresi, Gladio, p. 30, quoting directly from the Andreotti document. 25  Padre Giuciano testifying in front of his church in Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Puppeteers. Second of the total three Francovich Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 17, 1992. 26  Ferraresi, Gladio, p. 31, quoting directly from the Andreotti document. 27  Ibid. 28  As quoted in Ferraresi, Gladio, p. 31. 29  Norberto Bobbio as quoted in Ferraresi, Gladio, p. 32. 30  Miiller, Gladio, p. 27. 31  British daily The Observer, November 18, 1990. 32  International news service Reuters, November 12,1990. 33  Ferraresi, Gladio, p. 32. 34  British periodical The Economist, March 30,1991.

35 Senato della Repubblica. Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul terrorismo in Italia e sulle cause della mancata individuazione dei responsabiliy delle stragi: Stragi e terrorismo in Italia dal dopoguerra al 1974. Relazione del Gruppo Democratici di Sinistra l'Ulivo. Roma June 2000. As quoted in Philip Willan, US 'supported anti-left terror in Italy'. Report claims Washington used a strategy of tension in the cold war to stabilise the centre-right. In: British daily The Guardian, June 24, 2000.

260

2 A SCANDAL SHOCKS WESTERN EUROPE

1 The coalition included Kuwait, the United States, Saudi Arabia, Great Britain, France,

the Netherlands, Egypt, Syria, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, Israel,

Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Canada, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Honduras, Italy, Niger, Romania and South Korea. On November 29, 1990 the UN Security Council issued with resolution 678 an ultimatum and authorised the forces cooperating with Kuwait to use 'all necessary means ... to restore world peace and international security in the area', if Iraq should not withdraw from Kuwait until January 15, 1991. As Saddam Hussein did not respect the UN ultimatum Operation Desert Storm under US command began with a massive air attack on January 17, 1991 followed on February 24 by the invasion of allied land forces. The Iraqi forces were quickly defeated and on February 27, Kuwait City was liberated. The following day all coalition fighting ended. As many as 100,000 Iraqi troops are estimated to have died while deaths of coalition troops totaled about 370. On March 3, 1991 Iraq accepted the ceasefire and Saddam Hussein remained in power.

2. 2  Leo Muller, Gladio. Das Erbe des Kalten Krieges. Der NATO Geheimbund und sein deutscher Vorlaufer (Hamurg: Rowohlt, 1991), p. 27.

3. 3  No author specified, Spinne unterm Schafsfell. In Sudeuropa war die Guerillatruppe besonders aktiv - auch bei den Militarputschen in Griechenland und der Turkei? In: German news magazine Der Spiegel, Nr. 48, November 26, 1990.

4. 4  Presse- und Informationsamt der Bundesregierung. Pressemitteilung Nr. 455/90, durch Hans Klein, November 14, 1990. See also Muller, Gladio, p. 30.

5. 5  No author specified, Das blutige Schwert der CIA. Nachrichten aus dem Kalten Krieg: In ganz Europa gibt es geheime NATO Kommandos, die dem Feind aus dem Osten widerstehen sollen. Kanzler, Verteidigungsminister und Bundeswehrgenerale wussten angeblich von nichts. Die Spuren fuhren nach Pullach, zur 'stay-behind organisation' des Bundesnachrichtendienstes. In: German weekly news magazine Der Spiegel, November 19, 1990.

6. 6  Quoted in Muller, Gladio, p. 14.

7. 7  Ibid., p. 75.

8. 8  No author specified, Das blutige Schwert der CIA. Nachrichten aus dem Kalten Krieg:

   In ganz Europa gibt es geheime NATO Kommandos, die dem Feind aus dem Osten widerstehen sollen. Kanzler, Verteidigungsminister und Bundeswehrgenerale wussten angeblich von nichts. Die Spuren fiihren nach Pullach, zur 'stay-behind organisation' des Bundesnachrichtendienstes. In: German weekly news magazine Der Spiegel, November 19,1990.

9. 9  Quoted in Jan devWillems, Gladio (Brussels: Editions EPO, 1991), p. 13.

10. 10  Willems, Gladio, p. 13.

11. 11  Senate de Belgique: Enquete parlementaire sur 1'existence en Belgique d'un resau de

    renseignements clandestin international. Rapport fait au nom de la commission

    d'enquete par MM. Erdman et Hasqeuin. Brussels. October 1, 1991.

12. 12  Willems, Gladio, p. 14.

13. 13  International news agency Associated Press, November 11, 1990.

14. 14  Miiller, Gladio, p. 30.

15. 15  French daily he Monde, November 13, 1990. See also Swill weekly Wochenzeitung

    December 14, 1990.

16. 16  Jean-Francois Brozzu-Gentile, L' affaire Gladio (Paris: Editions Albain Michel,

    1994), p. 140.

17. 17  French daily he Monde, November 14, 1990. International news agency Reuters,

    November 12, 1990. British daily The Guardian, November 14, 1990

18. 18  Compare Gentile, Gladio, p. 141.

19. 19  British daily The Guardian, November 14, 1990.

261

20 Richard Norton Taylor, Secret Italian unit 'trained in Britain'. In: British daily The

Guardian, November 17, 1990.

21  Hugh O' Shaughnessy, Gladio: Europe's best kept secret. They were the agents who were to 'stay behind' if the Red Army overran western Europe. But the net- work that was set up with the best intentions degenerated in some countries into a front for terrorism and far-right political agitation. In: British daily The Observer, June 7, 1992. 22  International news service Associated Press, November 14, 1990. The entire text of Lubber's letter to parliament is reprinted in Dutch in the Dutch daily NRC Handelsblatt in the edition of November 14 1990: 'Brief premier Lubbers "geheime organisatie'". It is also contained as Kamerstuk Nr. 21895 among the official papers of the Dutch parliament. 23  International news agency Associated Press, November 14,1990. 24  Quoted in full in the Luxemburg daily, Luxemburger Wort, November 15, 1990. 25  British daily The Guardian, November 10, 1990. 26  Portuguese daily Diario De Noticias, November 17,1990. 27  Joao Paulo Guerra, 'Gladio' actuou em Portugal. In: Portuguese daily O Jornal, November 16, 1990. 28  Calvo Sotelo asegura que Espana no fue informada, cuando entro en la OTAN, de la existencia de Gladio. Moran sostiene que no oyo hablar de la red clandestina mientras fue ministro de Exteriores. In: Spanish daily El Pais, November 21, 1990. 29  Danish daily Berlingske Tidende, November 25, 1990. 30  International news service Associated Press, November 14, 1990. 31  Serdar Celik, Turkey's Killing Machine: The Contra Guerrilla Force. Online: (http:// www.ozgurluk.org/mhp/0061.html) His source: Interview with the President of me Turkish General Staff Dogan Gures. In: Turkish daily Milliyet, September 5, 1992. 32  Lucy Komisar, Turkey's terrorists: A CIA legacy lives on. In: The Progressive, April 1997. 33  Ibid. 34  Hugh Pope, Turkey Promoted Death Squads and Drug Trafficking. Prime Minister's Probe of 1996 Car Crash Scandal Excoriates Rival Mrs Ciller. In: US periodical Wall Street Journal, January 26, 1998. 35  The members of me EU in November 1990 were: France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxemburg, Denmark, Ireland, Great Britain, Greece, Spain and Portugal. 36  Debates of the European Parliament, November 22, 1990. Official transcripts. 37  Ibid. 38  Ibid. 39  Ibid.

40 Ibid.
41 Resolution of the European Parliament on the Gladio Affair, November 22, 1990.

3 THE SILENCE OF NATO, CIA AND MI6

1. 1  British daily The European, November 9, 1990.

2. 2  Ibid. It seems that the NATO official who issued the correction was Robert Stratford.

   Compare: Regine Igel, Andreotti. Politik zwischen Geheimdienst und Mafia (Munchen:

   Herbig Verlag, 1997), p. 343.

3. 3  British daily The Observer, November 18,1990.

4. 4  British daily The Guardian, November 10,1990.

5. 5  Ibid., January 30, 1992.

6. 6  Ibid., January 16, 1991.

262

7 International news service Reuters, November 15, 1990

8 No author specified, Gladio. Un misterio de la guerra fria. La trama secreta coordinada

por mandos de la Alianza Atlantica comienza a salir a la luz tras cuatro decadas de actividad. In: Spanish daily El pais, November 26, 1990.

9 No author specified, El servicio espanol de inteligencia mantiene estrechas relaciones con la OT AN. Serra ordena indagar sobre la red Gladio en Espana. In: Spanish daily El Pais, November 16, 1990

10 Erich Schmidt Eenboom. Scnuffler ohne Nase. Der BND. Die unheimliche Macht im Staate (Dusseldorf: Econ Verlag, 1993), p. 365.

11 Portuguese daily Expresso, November 24, 1990. 12 Ibid.

13 International news service Reuters, November 13, 1990. British daily The Independent, November 16, 1990.

14. 14  International news service Associated Press, November 14, 1990. International news service Reuters, November 12, 1990. International news service Reuters, November 15, 1990.

15. 15  British weekly The Independent on Sunday, June 21, 1998. Review of a book on Nixon (Nixon in Winter) by Nixon's former research assistant Monica Crowley.

16. 16  These were: 1951-1952 Gen. Dwight D Eisenhower, US Army; 1952-1953 Gen. Matthew B Ridgway, US Army; 1953-1956 Gen. Alfred M Gruenther, US Army; 1956-1962 Gen. Lauris Norstad, US Air Force; 1963-1969 Gen. Lyman L Lemnitzer, US Army; 1969-1974 Gen. Andrew J Goodpaster, US Army; 1974-1979 Gen. Alexander M Haig Jr, US Army; 1979-1987 Gen. Bernard W Rogers, US Army; 1987-1992 Gen. John R Galvin, US Army; 1992-1993 Gen. John M Shalikashvili, US Army; 1993-1997 Gen. George A Joulwan, US Army; 1997-2000 Gen. Wesley K. Clark, US Army.

17. 17  Jonathan Kwitny, The CIA's Secret Armies in Europe. In: The Nation, April 6, 1992, p. 445.

18. 18  German daily Der Spiegel, Nr. 47, p. 20, November 19, 1990.

19. 19  Pietro Cedomi, Services Secrets, Guerre Froide et 'stay-behind' Part III. Repetoire des

    resaux S/B. In: Belgian periodical Fire! Le Magazin de l'Homme d'Action, November/

    December 1991, p. 82.

20. 20  Belgian Parliamentary Commission of Enquiry into Gladio, as summarised in British

    periodical Statewatch, January/February 1992.

21. 21  Philip Willan, Puppetmasters: The Political Use of Terrorism in Italy (London:

    Constable, 1991), p. 27.

22. 22  Arthur Rowse, Gladio: The Secret US War to subvert Italian Democracy. In: Covert

    Action Quarterly, Nr. 49, Summer 1994, p. 3.

23. 23  Quoted in Willan, Puppetmasters, p. 27.

24. 24  Mario Coglitore (ed.), La Notte dei Gladiatori. Omissioni e silenze della Repubblica

    (Padova: Calusca Edizioni, 1992), p. 34. 'It remains an established fact that for sure secret NATO protocols exist, because De Gaulle denounced them explicidy on March 7, 1966 and the Parliament of West Germany has recently admitted that they exist' (ibid.).

25. 25  British periodical Searchlight, January 1991.

26. 26  Inzerilli, Paolo, Gladio. La Verita negata (Bologna: Edi/.ioni Analisi, 1995), p. 61.

27. 27  Inzerilli, Gladio, p. 62.

28. 28  Gerardo Serravalle, Gladio (Roma: Edizione Associate, 1991), p. 78.

29. 29  Ibid., p. 79.

30. 30  Ibid., p. 78.

31. 31  Belgian Parliamentary Commission of Enquiry into Gladio, as summarised in Bel-

    gium periodical Statewatch, January/February 1992.

32. 32  Inzerilli, Gladio, p. 63.

263

33 Ibid.

34. 34  Michel Van Ussel: Georges 923. Un agent du Gladio belge parle. Temoignage (Brussels: Editions La Longue Vue, 1991), p. 139.

35. 35  Inzerilli, Gladio, p. 64.

36. 36  Email of Anne-Marie Smith at NATO's Archives Section to the author, August 18,

    2000.

37. 37  Letter of the Chief of the Swiss mission to NATO, ambassador Anton Thalmann, to the

    author, dated May 4, 2001.

38. 38  Letter of Lee McClenny, NATO head of press and media, to the author, dated May 2,

    2001.

39. 39  Ibid.

40. 40  Presidential Directive, National Security Decision Memorandum 40, Responsibility for the Conduct, Supervision and Coordination of Covert Action Operations, Washington February 17, 1970. Signed: Richard Nixon.

41. 41  For probably the best global overview of CIA covert actions since the Second World War see William Blum: Killing Hope. US Military and CIA interventions since World War II (Maine: Common Courage Press, 1995).

42. 42  As given on the homepage www.terrorism.com.

43. 43  The three commissions were the Committee of the Senate directed by Frank Church,

    the Committee of the House of Representatives directed by Ottis Pike, and the Murphy Commission of President Ford.

1. 1  Report of the House Select Committee on Intelligence [Pike Committee], Ninety-fourth Congress, Published by Village Voice, New York City, February 1976.

2. 2  Report of the Commission on the Organization of the Government for the Conduct

   of Foreign Policy [Murphy Commission], US Government Printing Office,

   Washington DC, June 1975.

3. 3  Final Report, of the United States Senate Select Committe to Study Governmental

   Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities [Church Committee], US Government Printing Office, Washington DC, April 1976.

Arguably the best of the three reports, the 'Final Report of the US Senate Select Committee to study Governmental Operations with respect to Intelligence activities', is made up of six books. Book one focuses on 'Foreign and Military Intelligence', CIA, covert action operations and the democratic problem to control secret services. In book two, entitled 'Intelligence Activities and the Rights of the Americans', the Church report reveals how the NS A and the FBI have violated the privacy of US citizens. Book three, entitled 'Supplementary detailed staff reports on the intelligence activities and the rights of the Americans', extends the analysis of book two and suggests that 'Counter- Intelligence' is a misnomer for 'domestic covert action'. Book four is entitled 'Supplementary Detailed Staff Reports on Foreign and Military' and presents a history of the CIA from 1946 to 1975. Book five, entitled 'The Assassination of President John F. Kennedy and the performance of the Intelligence Agencies' investigates whether the US secret services have conspired to keep the JFK assassination a mystery. Book six, entitled 'Supplementary Reports on Intelligence Activities', deals with the historical evolution and organisation of the federal intelligence function from 1776 to 1976.

44. 44  Kathryn Olmsted, Challenging the Secret Government: The Post-Watergate Investigations of the CIA and FBI (Chapelhill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), p. 9.

45. 45  British daily The Independent, December 1, 1990.

46. 46  Kwitny, Jonathan, The CIA's Secret Armies in Europe. In: The Nation, April 6, 1992, p. 445.

47. 47  Arthur Rowse, Gladio. The Secret US War to Subvert Italian Democracy. In: Covert

    Action Quarterly, No. 49, Summer 1994.

264

48 FOIA request: CIA's 'Operation Gladio', handed in by Malcolm Byrne on April 15,

1991. FOIA request number 910113.

49. Italian daily Corriere della Sera, May 29, 1995.
50 Austrian political magazine Zoom, Nr. 4/5, 1996: Es muss nicht immer Gladio sein.

Attentate, Waffenlager, Erinnerungstucken, p. 6.

51. 51  Bericht betreff US Waffenlager. Oesterreichisches Bundesministerium fur Inneres.

    Generaldirektor fur die offentliche Sicherheit. Mag. Michael Sika. November 28, 1997.

    Wien, p. 10.

52. 52  Letter dated December 28, 2000 of the CIA to the author concerning Gladio FOIA

    request number F-2000-02528.

53. 53  Letter dated January 23, 2001 of the author to Mrs Dyer at the CIA.

54. 54  Letter dated February 7, 2001 from the CIA's Information and Privacy Coordinator

    Kathryn I. Dyer to the author.

55. 55  International news service Associated Press, November 14,1990.

56. 56  British television. BBC Newsnight, April 4, 1991, 10:30 p.m. Gladio report by journalist

    Peter Marshall.

57. 57  Ibid.

58. 58  Imperial War Museum, London. Secret Wars exhibition. Visited by the author on May 20, 1999. On June 4, 1999, the author met Mark Siemens, of the museum's research division, responsible for die Secret Wars exhibition, who stressed that the British secret army SOE during the Second World War was a direct predecessor to the Gladio stay-behinds, but otherwise saw no possibilities to gain more data from the MI6 on the phenomenon.

59. 59  Michael Smith, New Cloak, Old Dagger: How Britain's Spies Came in from the Cold (London: Gollancz, 1996), p. 117. Based on interviews with Simon Preston on October 11, 1995, and with Michael Giles on October 25, 1995.

60. 60  Smith, Dagger, p. 117.

61. 61  Ibid., p. 118.

4 THE SECRET WAR IN GREAT BRITAIN

1. 1  Denna Frank Fleming, The Cold War and its Origins 1917-1960 (New York, 1961), p. 4.

2. 2  Compare Fleming: Cold War.

3. 3  Figures taken from Andrew Wilson, Das Abriistungshandbuch: Analysen, Zusammen-

   hange, Hintergrunde (Hamburg: Hoffmann und Campe, 1984), p. 38. Compare the US losses: 300,000 soldiers killed, 600,000 injured. No civilian victims. Total human beings killed in the Second World War: 60 million (ibid.).

4. 4  Compare. Valentin Falin, Die Zweite Front (Munchen: Bomer Knaur, 1995).

5. 5  Mackenzie, W. J. M., History of the Special Operations Executive: Britain and the resistance in Europe (London: British Cabinet Office, 1948), pp. 1153 and 1155. Unpublished original of the Public Records Office London, publication with Frank

   Cass forthcoming.

6. 6  Mackenzie, Special Operations Executive, p. 2.

7. 7  An early functionary of SOE, Lt. Col. Holland, 'an officer with personal experience in

   irregular warfare in Ireland and India... and a lively appreciation of its technique and

   possibilities'. Quoted in Mackenzie, Special Operations Executive, p. 9.

8. 8  Next to MI6's Section D two other British organisations in the subversive field had been established in 1938. One was a section of the General Staff at the War Office, known as GS(R) and later as MI(R), which concentrated on studying techniques of irregular warfare. The other, labelled EH after its London headquarters Electra House, spe- cialised in 'black' (unattributable) propaganda to Europe. Compare David Stafford, Britain and European Resistance 1940-1945: A survey of the Special Operations Executive

   (Oxford: St Antony's College, 1980), pp. 19-21.

265

9 Tony Bunyan, The History and Practice of the Political Police in Britain (London:

Quartet Hooks, 1983), p. 265.

10  Peter Wilkinson, Foreign Fields: The Story of an SOE Operative (London: Tauris Pub- lishers, 1997), p. 100. 11  Imperial War Museum London, visited by the author in May 1999. 12  Wilkinson, Fields, p. 101. 13  Stafford, Resistance, p. 20. 14  Letter by Minister Hugh Dalton to Foreign Minister Halifax on July 2, 1940. Quoted in M. R. D. Foot, An outline history of the Special Operations Executive 1940-1946 (London: British Broadcasting Cooperation, 1984), p. 19. 15  State-watch Background Document File No. 0391: GLADIO. January 1991. Also online: http://users.patra.hol.gr/~cgian/gladio.html. Compare on the role of Gubbins also the Belgium periodical Fire! Le Magazin de l'Homme d'Action, September/ October 1991, p. 77. 16  E. H. Cookridge, Inside SOE. The Story of Special Operations in Western Europe 1940-45 (London: Arthur Barker Limited, 1966), p. 13. 17  Mackenzie, Special Operations Executive, p. 1152. 18  Ibid., pp. 1153 and 1155. 19  Stafford, Resistance, in his epilogue, p. 203. 20  Frans Kluiters, De Nederlandse inlichtingen en veiligheidsdiensten (1993), p. 309. 21  Stafford, Resistance, in his conclusion, p. 211. 22  Roger Faligot and Remi Kauffer, Les maitres espions. Histoire mondiale du renseigne- ment. Volume two. De la guerre froide a nos jours (Paris: Editions Laffont, 1994), p. 53. 23  Michael Smith, New Cloak, Old Dagger: How Britain's Spies Came in from the Cold (London: Gollancz, 1996), p. 117. Based on interviews with Simon Preston on October 11, 1995, and with Michael Giles on October 25, 1995. 24  Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Ringmasters. First of the total three Francovich Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 10, 1992. 25  Michael de la Billiere, Looking for Trouble (London: HarperCollins, 1994), p. 150. The work is an autobiography of Billiere and his time in the SAS.

26. 26  International news service Associated Press, November 14, 1990.

27. 27  The Unleashing of Evil, produced by Richard Norton Taylor, who for the Guardian

    also reported extensively on the Gladio revelations in 1990. Broadcast on BBC on June 29, 1988. Announced in British daily The Guardian of the same day: 'British soldiers used torture'.

28. 28  SAS officer to distinguished investigative journalist John Pilger. British daily The Guardian, October 16, 1990. The Reagan Administration was furious when in 1986 the correspondence of congressional lawyer Jonathan Winer exposed that the US had been funding Pol Pot with 85 million dollars between 1980 and 1986 according the logic 'the enemy of my enemy is my partner' (John Pilger in the British daily The Guard- ian, October 6, 1990). The British side was not less embarrassed. In 1990 British Prime Minister Thatcher according to plausible denial logics denied British involvement in the training of Khmer Rouge units despite the testimonies of SAS officers. Finally in a libel case in 1991 involving John Pilger the British department of defence admitted that Britain had helped train Khmer Rouge allies (The British daily The Guardian, April 20, 1993).

29. 29  Joseph Paul de Boucherville Taillon, International Cooperation in the Use of elite military forces to counter terrorism: The British and American Experience, with special reference to their respective experiences in the evolution of low intensity operations (1992), p. 200 (PhD thesis London School of Economics and Political Science, unpub- lished). Letter from Carver to Boucherville Taillon, dated December 24, 1985.

266

30 British periodical Lobster, December 1995

31 British monthly Searchlight, January 1991

32 Richard Norton-Taylor, UK trained secret Swiss force. In: British daily The Guardian,

September 20, 1991 33 Urs Frieden, Die England Connection. PUK EMD: P26 Geheimarmist Hurlimann im

Manover. In: Swiss weekly Wochenzeitung, November 30, 1990.

34. 34  Schweizer Bundesrat: Sclussbericht in der Administrativuntersuchung zur Abklarung der Natur von allfalligen Beziehungen zwischen der Organisation P26 und analogen Organisationen im Ausland. Kurzfassung fur die Oeffentlichkeit. September 19, 1991, pp. 4-5.

35. 35  Ibid., p. 2.

36. 36  British periodical Searchlight, January 1991.

37. 37  The Broccoli letter of October 1, 1951, entitled 'Organizzazione informativa operativa

    nel territorio nazionale suscettibile di occupazione nemica' is an important Gladio document. The Italian parliamentary commission quotes from it. A good summary can be found in Mario Coglitore, La notte dei Gladiatori. Omissioni e silenzi delta Repubblica (Padova: Calusca Edizioni, 1992), pp. 132-133. Also the Italian political magazine Espresso, in possession of the original Broccoli document, quotes extensively from the letter in their edition of January 18, 1991.

38 Coglitore, Gladiatori, p. 133.

39. 39  Pietro Cedomi, Service secrets, guerre froide et 'stay-behind. Part II': La mise en place des resaux. In: Belgian periodical Fire! Le Magazin de l'Homme d'Action, September/October 1991, p. 80.

40. 40  Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Ringmasters. First of the total three Francovich Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 10, 1992.

41. 41  Enquete parlementaire sur l'existence en Belgique d'un reseau de renseignements clandestin international, rapport fait au nom de la commission d'enquete par MM. Erdman et Hasquin. Document Senat, session de 1990-1991. Brussels, pp. 212-213.

42. 42  Ibid., p. 213. Also quoted in British daily The Observer, June 7, 1992.

43. 43  Quoted in Olav Riste, The Norwegian Intelligence Service 1945-1970 (London: Frank

    Cass, 1999), p. 16.

44. 44  Thomas Kanger and Oscar Hedin, Erlanders hemliga gerilla. I ett ockuperat Sverige

    skulle det nationella motstandet ledas fran Appelbo skola i Dalarna. In: Swedish daily

    Dagens Nyheter, October 4, 1998.

45. 45  British daily The Guardian, November 14, 1990.

46. 46  Hugh O' Shaughnessy, Gladio: Europe's best kept secret. They were the agents

    who were to 'stay behind' if the Red Army overran western Europe. But the network that was set up with the best intentions degenerated in some countries into a front for terrorism and far-right political agitation. In: British daily The Observer, June 7, 1992.

47. 47  British television. BBC Newsnight, April 4, 1991, 10:30 p.m. Gladio report by journalist Peter Marshall.

48. 48  Ibid.

49. 49  Obituary in British daily The Independent, April 28, 1997.

50. 50  Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Ringmasters. First of the total three Francovich Gladio

    documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 10, 1992; Gladio: The Puppeteers. Second of the total three Francovich Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 17, 1992; and Gladio: The Foot Soldiers. Third of the total three Francovich Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 24, 1992.

51 Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Ringmasters. First of the total three Francovich Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 10, 1992.

52 British daily The Times, June 28, 1992.

267

5 THE SECRET WAR IN THE UNITED STATES

1. 1  William Colby. Honorable Men: My life in the CIA (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1978), p. 100.

2. 2  Walter Trohan in US daily The Chicago Tribune, February 9, 1945.

3. 3  Related in Christopher Andrew, For the President's Eyes Only: Secret Intelligence and

   the American Presidency from Washington to Bush (New York: HarperCollins, 1995),

   p. 164.

4. 4  Christopher Shoemaker, The NSC staff: counselling the council (1991), p. 1.

5. 5  John Prados, Keepers of the Keys: A history of the National Security Council from

   Truman to Bush (New York: William Morow, 1991), p. 567. Previously John Prados published the valuable book, Presidents' Secret Wars: CIA and Pentagon Covert Operations since World War II (New York: William Morrow, 1986). By that time the secret armies in Western Europe had not yet been discovered and the book contains no reference to Gladio.

6. 6  Thomas Etzold and John Gaddis, Containment: Documents on American Policy and Strategy 1945-1950 (New York: Coumbia University Press, 1978), p. 12.

7. 7  Philip Willan, Puppetmasters: The Political Use of Terrorism in Italy (London: Constable, 1991), p. 20.

8. 8  Quoted in Andrew, Eyes Only, p. 171.

9. 9  Andrew, Eyes Only, p. 171.

10. 10  Arthur Darling, The Central Intelligence Agency: An Instrument of Government. To 1950 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1990), p. 245.

11. 11  Darling, Agency, p. 246.

12. 12  NSC 10/2: National Security Council Directive on Office of Special Projects, June 18,

    1948. Formerly Top Secret. Contained in full in Etzold and Gaddis, Containment, p. 125. The fundamental importance of NSC 10/2 for the secret anti-Communist armies in Western Europe has been realised by almost all Gladio scholars. Compare Jan de Willems (ed.), Gladio (Brussels: Editions EPO, 1991), p. 145; Jens Mecklenburg (ed.), Gladio: Die geheime Terror organisation der Nato (Berlin: Elefanten Press 1997), pp. 17 and 51; Leo Muller, Gladio - das Erbe des Kalten Krieges. Der Nato-Geheimbund und sein deutscher Vorlaufer (Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1991), p. 63.

13. 13  Quoted in Andrew, Eyes Only, p. 171. Allen Dulles, Director of CIA from 1953 to 1961, privately reminded Truman that he could not escape responsibility in the Greek, Turkish, Italian or Philippine US covert action operations. To the CIA legal counsel Dulles wrote on the subject that 'At no time did Mr. Truman express other than com- plete agreement with the viewpoint I expressed' (ibid.).

14. 14  Andrew, Eyes Only, p. 198.

15. 15  Moscow Embassy Telegram Nr. 511: 'The Long Telegram', February 22, 1946.

    In: Etzold and Gaddis, Containment, p. 63.

16. 16  George Kennan as quoted in Etzold and Gaddis, Containment, p. 125.

17. 17  United States Senate. Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental

    Operations with respect to Intelligence activities. Book IV: Supplementary detailed

    staff reports on foreign and military intelligence, p. 36.

18. 18  Harris Smith, OSS. The Secret History of America's First Central Intelligence Agency

    (Berkley: University of California Press, 1972), p. 240.

19. 19  Thomas Powers, The Man Who Kept the Secrets: Richard Helms and the CIA

    (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980), p. 37. There does not seem to exist a biography of Frank Wisner. The best-published source on him thus remains the biography on Richard Helms by Powers. Helms first served under Wisner in the covert action department and in 1958 replaced Wisner when he was promoted to become the chief of CIA covert actions.

20. 20  Powers, Helms, p. 32.

268

21 Darling, Agency, p. 279.

22. 22  Pietro Cedomi, Service secrets, guerre froide, et 'stay-behind Part II': La mise en place des resaux. In: Belgian periodical Fire! Le Magazin de I'Homme d'Action September/October 1991, p. 78.

23. 23  Powers, Helms, p. 48. Same figures by Andrew: Eyes Only, p. 193.

24. 24  Ludwell Montague, General Walter Bedell Smith OS Director of Central Intelligence

    (University Park: Pennsylvania University Press, 1992), p. 209. This would most probably be a good book were it not so heavily censored by the CIA. Every second paragraph features '[one line deleted], [three paragraphs deleted], [seven lines deleted]' etc. It is in this context that brilliant American writer Mark Twain observed a century ago in his Following the Equator (1897) 'It is by the goodness of God in our country that we have those three unspeakably precious things: freedom of speech, freedom of conscience, and the prudence never to practise either of them.'

25. 25  Montague, Smith, p. 213.

26. 26  Colby, Honorable Men, p. 83.

27. 27  Ibid., pp. 81 and 82.

28. 28  Ibid., p. 83.

29. 29  This document, found by the author, has not previously been discussed in the context

    of the Gladio discoveries, but clearly is of direct importance for investigations into the Gladio command centre CPC. Memorandum by Lieutenant General Leon W. Johnson, US Representative to the NATO Military Committee Standing Group, of January 3, 1957, to the US Joint Chiefs of Staff on Clandestine Intelligence. Formerly Top Secret. Declassified in 1978. Found through computer-based Declassified Documents Reference System at LSE in London.

30. 30  As counter-insurgency became a fashionable word in the Kennedy administration all branches of the US military rushed to create 'special operations units' with the Navy forming for instance the SEAL (sea, air, land) teams trained to parachute into the sea, wearing scuba gear, equipped to blow up ships, and trained to fight on land once they emerged from the water.

31. 31  Colonel Aaron Bank, From OSS to Green Berets: The Birth of Special Forces (Novato: Presidio Press, 1986), pp. 175-176.

32. 32  Bank, Special Forces, pp. 168-169.

33. 33  Belgium periodical Fire! Le Magazin de I'Homme d'Action, p. 84. Also Austrian political

    magazine Zoom, Nr. 4 /5, 1996: Es muss nicht immer Gladio sein. Attentate, Waffenlager,

    Erinnerungslucken, p. 61.

34. 34  Mecklenburg, Gladio, p. 50.

35. 35  Gerardo Serravalle, Gladio (Roma: Edizioni Associate, 1991), p. 90.

36. 36  Powers, Helms, p. 89.

37. 37  British monthly Searchlight, January 1991.

38. 38  Pietro Cedomi, Service secrets, guerre froide et 'stay-behind. Part II': La mise en

    place des resaux. In: Belgian periodical Fire! Le Magazin de I'Homme d'Action

    September/October 1991, p. 77.

39. 39  Powers, Helms, p. 77.

40. 40  Christopher Simpson, Blowback. America's Recruitment of Nazis and its Effects on the

    Cold War (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1988), p. 289. Powers, Helms, p. 77.

41. 41  Address of Richard Helms, Director of CIA, at the funeral of Frank Gardiner Wisner,

    1909-1965. Found through computer-based Declassified Documents Reference System.

42. 42  Jonathan Kwitny, An International Story. The CIA's Secret Armies in Europe. In: US

    periodical The Nation, April 6, 1992, pp. 444-448, p. 445.

43 British daily The Times, May 7, 1996.
44 Ramsey Clark, The Fire this Time: US War Crimes in the Gulf (New York: Thunder's

Mouth Press, 1992), p. 31.

269

43 Clark, Fire, p. 32.

46. 46  Resolution of the European Parliament on the Gladio Affair, November 22, 1990.

47. 47  US daily The Washington Post, November 14, 1990. The only other article by the Washington Post which features the keyword 'Gladio' appeared on August 8, 1993, again solely on Italy. In Europe reporting on Gladio was much more widespread. The two articles of the Washington Post compare to 39 articles on Gladio in numerous

    countries in the same time period in the British daily newspaper The Guardian.

48. 48  British daily The Independent, December 1,1990.

6 THE SECRET WAR IN ITALY

1. 1  While it has been confirmed that the PCI received strong financial support from Moscow the historical debate as to the precise relationship between the PCI and the Soviet Communist Party during the Cold War is still going on. Sergio Romano, Italian ambassador to the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1989, related that until the late 1970s the majority of the financial assets of the Italian Communist Party were provided by the Soviet Communist Party. Research on the links between PCI and Moscow available in English include: Joan Barth Urban, Moscow and the Italian Communist Party: From Togliatti to Berlinguer (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1986). Gianni Cervetti, L'Oro di Mosca: La Verita sui Finanziamenti Sovietici al PCI Raccontata dal Diretto Protagonista (Milano Baldini & Castoldi 1993, second edition 1999); and Valerio Rima, Oro da Mosca. I Finanziamenti Sovietici al PCI dalla Rivoluzione d'Ottobre al Crollo dell' URSS (Milano: Mondadori, 1999).

2. 2  Senato della Repubblica. Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul terrorismo in Italia e sulle cause della mancata individuazione dei responsabiliy delle stragi: Il terrorismo, le stragi ed il contesto storico politico. Redatta dal presidente della Commissione, Senatore Giovanni Pellegrino. Roma 1995, p. 20. This report of the Italian Senate ranges certainly among the most authoritative documents on Gladio and US covert action in Italy in general. It investigates Gladio, terrorism and long unclarified massacres. In order to avoid confusion with the equally valuable Senate report on Gladio presented in 2000, it will be quoted hereafter as 'Italian 1995 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres'.

3. 3  Italian magazine Panorama, February 10, 1976. Quoted in Italian 1995 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres, p. 13.

4. 4  Roberto Faenza, Gli americani in Italia (Milano: Editore Feltrinelli, 1976), pp. 10-13. The connection between the United States and the Mafia had already been revealed in 1951 by the US Senate investigation under Senator Kefauver. Compare US Senate Special Committee, Hearings on Organised Crime and Interstate Commerce, part 7, p. 1181 (1951). Italian historian Roberto Faenza was one of the first analysts to realise the enor- mous impact that US covert action had on Italy. His first book on the topic, published together with Marco Fini, came out in 1976 and focused on the immediate post-war years, entitled simply: Gli Americani in Italia. The foreword to the book read: 'For many people all around the world, including the average citizen of the United States, it has really been very hard and painful to realise slowly but surely the fact that the United States of America are the most conservative and the most counter-revolutionary force that there is in this world. But this is exactly how the situation is as this book demonstrates brilliantly showing the secret interventions of the American government into the internal affairs of the Italian population... the picture is the same as it has already been revealed by other studies for Greece, Iran, Guatemala, the Dominican Republic and many other countries... It is difficult to convince oneself of these dire facts.'

5. 5  British daily The Observer, January 10, 1993. Referring to the January 1993 BBC2 television documentary: Allied to the Mafia.

270

6 Mackenzie, W. J. M. History of the Special Operations Executive: Britain and the

resistance in Europe (London: British Cabinet Officee, 1948), pp. 842 and 853.

Unpublished original of the Public Records O f f i c e London, publication with Frank Cass forthcoming. In the Pacific theatre and specifically in the Philippines the same strategy of supplying and then weakening left-wing guerrillas during the Second World War was employed by the United States. Japan had invaded the Philippines in January 1942. The United States supported and trained partisans of various political orientations against the Japanese occupation in the Philippines including the left-wing strong Huk partisan movement which presented a strong force for social revolution. But as in Italy and Greece, the brothers in arms were betrayed. Once the Japanese were defeated the United States disarmed the guerrillas and the Huks were massacred in the presence of US officers till at least 1945. US historian Gabriel Kolko comments: The 'Huk leadership naively expected the Americans to tolerate them.' Compare Gabriel Kolko, Century of War Politics, Conflict, and Society since 1914 (New York: The New Press, 1994),"p. 363.

7. 7  Geoffrey Harris, The Dark Side of Europe: The Extreme Right Today (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1994), pp. 3 and 15.

8. 8  Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Ringmasters. First of the total three Francovich Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 10, 1992.

9. 9  William Blum, Killing Hope: US Military and CIA Interventions since World War II (Maine: Common Courage Press, 1995), p. 28.

10. 10  Martin Lee, The Beast Reawakens (Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1997), p. 100.

11. 11  Jonathan Dunnage, Inhibiting Democracy in Post-War Italy: The Police Forces,

    1943-48. In: Italian Studies, 51, 1996, p. 180.

12. 12  Stuart Christie, Stefano delle Chiaie (London: Anarchy Publications, 1984), p. 6.

13. 13  Ibid., p. 4.

14. 14  Tom Mangold, Cold Warrior: James Jesus Angleton; The CIA's Master Spy Hunter

    (London: Simon & Schuster, 1991), p. 20. It is unfortunate that Angleton's biographer Mangold does not give any details of Angleton's work with Fascists in the years after 1945 and does not mention how Angleton saved Borghese.

15. 15  William Corson, The Armies of Ignorance: The Rise of the American Intelligence Empire (New York: The Dial Press, 1977), pp. 298 and 299. As the operation was secret the money was dirty and had to be laundered first. Corson explains that this was done by first withdrawing 10 million dollars in cash from the Economic Stabilization Fund, laundering it through individual bank accounts and from there 'donate' it to a variety of CIA front organisations.

16. 16  Christie, delle Chiaie, p. 175.

17. 17  Denna Frank Fleming, The Cold War and Its Origins 1917-1960 (New York: Doubleday,

    1961), p. 322.

18. 18  Thomas Powers, The Man Who Kept the Secrets: Richard Helms and the CIA (London:

    Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980), p. 30.

19. 19  British daily The Guardian, January 15, 1992.

20. 20  During Italy's First Republic the military secret service due to repeated scandals was

    repeatedly forced to change its name. From its creation in 1949 until the first major scandal in 1965 the Italian military secret service was called S1FAR, while from 1965 to 1977 it operated with almost the same personnel under the name of SID. After yet another scandal, SID as of 1978 was split into two new branches which still operate today. The civilian branch was placed under the Interior Ministry and labelled SISDE (Servizio Informazioni Sicurezza Democratica), while the military branch remained under the Defence Ministry and operated under the label SISMI. The Directors of the Italian military secret services during the First Republic were: General Giovanni Carlo (1949-1951, SIFAR), General Umberto Broccoli (1951-1953, SIFAR), General Ettore

271

MUSCO (1953-1955, SIF AR), General Giovanni De Lorenzo (1956-1962, SIF AR),

General Egidio Viggiani (1962-1965, SIFAR), General Giovanni Allavena (1965-1966, SID), General Eugenio Henke (1966-1970, SID), General Vito Miceli (1970-1974, SID), General Mario Casardi (1974-1978, SID), General Giuseppe Santovito (1978-1981, SISMI), General Nino Lugaresi (1981-1984, SISMI), Admiral Fulvio Martini (1984-1991, SISMI), Sergio Luccarini (1991, SISMI), General Luigi Ramponi (1991-1992, SISMI), General Cesare Pucci (1992-1993, SISMI).

21. 21  Philip Willan, Puppetmasters: The Political Use of Terrorism in Italy (London: Constable, 1991), p. 34.

22. 22  Mario Coglitore (ed.), La Notte dei Gladiatori. Omissioni e silenze delta Repubblica (Padova: Calusca Edizioni, 1992), p. 34.

23. 23  British daily The Observer, November 18, 1990

24. 24  Italian 1995 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres, p. 49.

25. 25  Coglitore, Gladiatori, p. 133.

26. 26  Pietro Cedomi, Service secrets, guerre froide et 'stay-behind. Part II': La mise en

    place des resaux. In: Belgian periodical Fire! Le Magazin de l'Homme d'Action,

    September/October 1991, p. 80.

27. 27  British daily The Observer, June 7, 1992.

28. 28  The document was declassified in 1994 and caused widespread criticism in Italy.

    Compare Italian daily La Stampa, November 27,1994.

29. 29  William Colby, Honourable Men: My Life in the CIA (New York: Simon & Schuster,

    1978), p. 110.

30. 30  Roberto Faenza, Il malaffare. Dall' America di Kennedy all'Italia, a Cuba, al Vietnam

    (Milano: Editore Arnoldo Mondadori, 1978), p. 312.

31. 31  The existence of the document was revealed during the Gladio revelations in 1990.

    Italian 1995 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres, p. 25.

32. 32  Italian periodical Europeo, January 18 1991. The Italian parliamentary commission

    knew of the existence of the 1956 document on Gladio only because it had come into the possession of a June 1, 1959 document on Gladio which referred back to the other docu- ment in precise terms, saying that it is dated November 26, 1956 and in its Italian version entitled 'Accordo fra il Servizio Informazioni Italiano ed il Servizio Informazioni USA relativo alla organizzazione ed all'attivita della rete clandestina post-occupazione (stay-behind) italo-statunitense.' [Agreement between SIFAR and the CIA concerning the organisation and activity of the secret Italian-US post-occupation network (stay-behind).] The original 1959 document is contained in Coglitore, Gladiatori, pp. 118-130.

33. 33  Belgian periodical Fire, January 1992, p. 59.

34. 34  Ibid., p. 62.

35. 35  Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Puppeteers. Second of the total three Francovich

    Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 17, 1992.

36. 36  Colby, Honourable Men, p. 128.

37. 37  Ibid., pp. 109-120.

38. 38  The document is quoted in Faenza, Malaffare, p. 313. Italian historian Roberto Faenza in

    the 1970s researched in the US archives and by using the FOIA got hold of the Demagnetize document revealing for the first time 'this heavy deviation of the Italian Secret Service'.

39 Stato Maggiore della Difesa. Servizio Informazioni delle Forze Annate. Ufficio R - Sezione SAD: Le forze speciali del SIFAR e I'operazione GLADIO. Roma, 1 Giugno 1959. This

document was found by judge Felice Casson in the archives of SIFAR in Rome in 1990 and started the Gladio revelations in Italy and beyond. The document is contained in Coglitore, Gladiatori, pp. 118-130.

40 Cobly, Honourable Men, p. 136.
41 Telegram sent by the Secretary of State to the US embassy in Rome on October 18,

1961. Quoted in Faenza, Malaffare, p. 311. Faenza offers a very good analysis on

272

Kennedy's plan to open Italy to the left. Compare Faenza, Malaffare, pp. 307-373 ('L'

apertura a sinistra)

42. 42  Quoted in Regine Igel, Andreotti, Politik zwischen Geheimdienst und Mafia (Munchen: Herbig Verlag, 1997), p. 49. Her undated reference is the US magazine New Statesman.

43. 43  Faenza, Malaffare, p. 310.

44. 44  Igel, Andreotti, p. 50.

45. 45  Faenza, Malaffar, p. 336.

46. 46  Jens Mecklenburg (ed.), Gladio: Die geheime Terrororganisation der Nato (Berlin:

    Elefanten Press, 1997), p. 30. And Coglitore, Gladiatori, p. 185. It was a former General of the SID who revealed that these attackers were Gladiators during interroga- tions in the 1980s in the context of the Propaganda Due (in short P2) scandal.

47. 47  Jean Francois Brozzu-Gentile: L' affaire Gladio (Paris: Editions Albin Michel, 1994), p. 77. And Faenza, Malaffare, p. 315. See also Willan, Puppetmasters, p. 84.

48. 48  Italian 1995 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres, p. 85.

49. 49  Ibid.

50. 50  State Maggiore della Difesa. Servizio Informazioni delle Forze Armate. Ufficio

    R - Sezione SAD: Le forze speciali del SIFAR e l'operazione GLADIO. Roma, l Giugno 1959. The document is contained in Coglitore, Gladiatori, pp. 118-130. Investigations into Piano Solo suggested that 731 persons were to be deported, while the Senate commission investigating Operation Gladio found that it is much more likely that between 1100 and 1200 influential people were to be imprisoned in the Gladio headquarters CAG on Sardinia. Scandalously the military secret service refused to make the Gladio proscription lists available to the parliamentary commission. 'This is a very grave situation, for one can assume that the list contains the names of parliamentarians and political functionaries, and the publication of it would withdraw any basis from the claim that the events of 1964 had been cautious operations in order to prevent public disturbances', the Senators concluded. See Italian 1995 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres, p. 89.

51. 51  A good description of the coup is contained in Richard Collin, The De Lorenzo Gambit: The Italian Coup Manque of 1964 (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1976). Collin, who graduated from Harvard, lectured in Maryland, specialised in military affairs and served as an officer of staff of the US Secretary of the Army, later as the adviser to the Defense attache at the US Embassy in Rome and later as a consultant to the Saudi Defence Forces, offers a remarkably good early narrative of Piano Solo in his 60-pages booklet. Unfortunately he excludes almost completely the role that die United States played behind the scenes.

52. 52  Collin, Coup, p. 60.

53. 53  Ibid. His source is the Italian political magazine Avanti!, July 26, 1964.

54. 54  Coglitore, Gladiatori, p. 186. See also Willan, Puppetmasters, p. 85.

55. 55  Italian 1995 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres, p. 87. Bernard Cook,

    The Mobilisation of the Internal Cold War in Italy. In: History of European

    Ideas. Vol. 19, 1994, p. 116.

56. 56  Franco Ferraresi, A Secret Structure Codenamed Gladio. In: Italian Politics. A Review,

    1992, p. 41. The silent Gladio coup would never have been exposed without the work of investigative journalists. Starting in Spring 1967 journalist Raffaele Jannuzzi (who later entered parliament to represent the Socialists) in the political magazine Espresso informed a startled Italian public that they had only narrowly escaped a coup d'etat (Complotto al Quirinale, Espresso, May 14, 1967). De Lorenzo's attempt to make journalist Jannuzzi shut up with a defamation suit led to counter-productive results as in the process such a large quantity of evidence surfaced that the government was ultimately forced to concede to a full parliamentary investigation into 'the events of 1964'

273

(Italian Senate. Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sugli eventi del giungo-luglio

1964. Findings published in two volumes (Majority and Minority Report) in Rome in 1971).

57. 57  Relazione della Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sugli eventi del giungno-luglio 1964, Roma 1971, p. 67. Quoted in Igel, Andreotti, p. 51. And Willan, Puppetmasters, p. 38.

58. 58  Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sugli eventi del giugno-luglio 1964, Relazione di

    minoranza, Roma 1971, p. 307. Compare Igel, Andreotti, p. 53.

59. 59  Quoted in Igel, Andreotti, p. 52.

60. 60  Italian judge Carlo Palermo, upon having discovered links of Licio Gelli to right-wing

    terrorists, had ordered the anti-terror office of SISMI to help him in his investigation. The anti-terror office of the SISMI on April 16, 1983, presented details on the US secret hand in Italy. It was maybe the first time that the unit had carried out its duty and tellingly the anti-terror office of the SISMI was thereafter closed down immediately. The promising career of Emilio Santillos, Director of the SISMI anti-terror office, ended abruptly soon after the report while also the biographies of his fellow investigators took a tragic twist. SISMI Colonel Florio died in a mysterious car accident, SISMI Colonel Serrentiono left the service 'for reasons of ill health', Major Rossi committed suicide and only Major Antonio de Salvo left the anti-terror office in good health and joined the Freemasons. Quoted in Igel, Andreotti, p. 232.

61. 61  British daily The Observer, February 21,1988.

62. 62  Senato delta Repubblica Italiana. Relazione delta Commissione Parlamentare d'inchi-

    esta Sulla Loggia P2, Roma 1984.

63. 63  In an interview with Willan. Quoted in Willan, Puppetmasters, p. 55.

64. 64  Igel, Andreotti, p. 229.

65. 65  Quoted in the British periodical The New Statesman, September 21,1984.

66. 66  Hugh O'Shaughnessy: Gladio. Europe's best kept secret. They were the agents who

    were to 'stay behind' if the Red Army overran Western Europe. But the network that was set up with the best intentions degenerated in some countries into a front for terrorism and far-right political agitation. In British daily The Observer, June 7,1992.

67. 67  Gentile, Gladio, p. 28.

68. 68  Ibid.

69. 69  British daily television news program Newsnight on BBC1 on April 4, 1991.

70. 70  Willan, Puppetmasters, p. 41.

71. 71  Italian 1995 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres, p. 97.

72. 72  Ibid., p. 164.

73. 73  Willan, Puppetmasters, p. 97. Buscetta testified to Falcone in December 1984. Later courageous Falcone was killed by the Mafia.

74. 74  LiggiototheReggioCalabriaassizecourtin1986.QuotedinWillan,Puppetmasters,p.97.

75. 75  Willan, Puppetmasters, p. 94.

76. 76  Colby, Honourable Men, p. 395.

77. 77  Compare for instance McNamara, Robert, In Retrospect: The Tragedy and Lessons of

    Vietnam (New York: Random House, 1995).

78. 78  Willian, Puppetmasters, p. 93.

79. 79  British political magazine Statewatch, January 1991.

80. 80  Gentile, Gladio, p. 105.

81. 81  British political magazine Statewatch, January 1991. And Gentile, Gladio, p. 19.

82. 82  Italian political magazine Europeo, November 16, 1990.

83. 83  Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Puppeteers. Second of the total three Francovich

    Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 17, 1992.

84. 84  Ibid.

85. 85  The results in the subsequent years in the elections for the Italian parliament were these for the three dominating parties DCI. PCI and PSI:

274

DCI (%)

39.1

38.7 38.7 38.3 32.9 34.3

PCI (%) 26.9

27.1 34.4 30.4 29.9 16.6

PSI (%) 14.5

9.6 9.6 9.8

11.4 14.3

PCI+PSI (%) 41.4

36.7 44.0 40.2 41.3 40.9

1968

1972

1976

1979

1983

1987

1992

1994

29.7 dissolved

23.6 28.3

13.6 2.2

37.2 30.5

Source: http://www.aitec.it/paradisi/costitutz/c_app3.htm.

86. 86  Pike Report: Report of the House Select Committee on Intelligence [Pike Committee], Ninety-fourth Congress (New York: Village Voice, 1976), pp. 193 and 195.

87. 87  Joe Garner, We Interrupt this broadcast. The Events that stopped our lives. From the Hindenburg Explosion to the Death of John F. Kennedy Jr (Naperville: Sourcebooks, 2000), p. 87.

88. 88  Quoted in Willan, Puppetmasters, p. 220.

89. 89  Willan, Puppetmasters, p. 325.

90. 90  Quoted in Willan, Puppetmasters, p. 219.

91. 91  Italian 1995 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres, pp. 294 and 295.

92. 92  Ibid., p. 294

93. 93  British daily The Guardian, January 16, 1991.

94. 94  International news service Associated Press, November 20,1990.

95. 95  BBC reporter Peter Marshall interviewing Serravalle for the Newsnight special report

    on Gladio of April 4, 1991.

96. 96  Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Puppeteers. Second of the total three Francovich

    Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 17, 1992.

97. 97  Italian 1995 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres, pp. 242 and 364.

98. 98  Senato della Repubblica. Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul terrorismo in

    Italia e sulle cause della mancata individuazione dei responsabili delle stragi: Stragi e terrorismo in Italia dal dopoguerra al 1974. Relazione del Gruppo Democratici di Sinistra l'Ulivo. Roma June 2000. Hereafter quoted as 2000 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres. The 8 members were: On. Valter Bielli, On. Antonio Attili, On. Michele Cappella, On. Piero Ruzzante, Sen. Alessandro Pardini, Sen. Raffaele Bertoni, Sen. Graziano Cioni, Sen. Angelo Staniscia. As quoted in Philip Willan, US 'supported anti-left terror in Italy'. Report claims Washington used a strategy of tension in the cold war to stabilise the centre-right. In: British daily The Guardian, June 24, 2000.

99. 99  Italian 2000 Senate report on Gladio and the massacres, p. 41.

100. 100  Ibid.

101. 101  Ibid., p. 42.

102. 102  Philip Willan, US 'supported anti-left terror in Italy'. Report claims Washington used

     a strategy of tension in the cold war to stabilise the centre-right. In: British daily The

     Guardian, June 24, 2000.

103. 103  Philip Willan, US 'supported anti-left terror in Italy'. Report claims Washington used

     a strategy of tension in the cold war to stabilise the centre-right. In: British daily The Guardian, June 24, 2000.

275

7 THE SECRET WAR IN FRANCE

1. 1  The First French Republic followed the French Revolution of 1789 and lasted from 1792 to 1799. The Second French Republic followed the European revolutions and lasted from 1848 to 1852. The Third French Republic began in 1886 and ended with the defeat during the Second World War in 1940.

2. 2  Edward Rice-Maximin, Accommodation and Resistance: The French Left, Indochina and the Cold War 1944-1954 (New York: Greenwood Press, 1986), p. 12.

3. 3  Philip Agee and Louis Wolf Louis, Dirty Work: The CIA in Western Europe (Secaucus: Lyle Stuart Inc., 1978), p. 182.

4. 4  Quoted in Rice-Maximin, Resistance, p. 95. The speech was held on January 28, 1950.

5. 5  Hoyt S. Vandenberg, Memorandum for the President Harry S. Truman. Central Intelligence Group, Washington, November 26, 1946. First classified as top-secret,

   now in the Harry Truman library.

6. 6  Roger Faligot and Pascal Krop, La Piscine. Les Services Secrets Francois 1944-1984

   (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1985), p. 84.

7. 7  Roger Faligot and Remi Kaufer, Les Maitres Espions. Histoire Mondiale du Ren-

   seignement. Tome 2. De la Guerre Froide a nos jours (Paris: Editions Laffont, 1994), p. 56.

8. 8  Faligot and Krop, Piscine, p. 85.

9. 9  Rice-Maximin, Resistance, p. 53.

10. 10  Faligot and Krop, Piscine, p. 85.

11. 11  Ibid., p. 86.

12. 12  Faligot and Kaufer, Espions, p. 56.

13. 13  Faligot and Krop, Piscine, p. 86.

14. 14  Hoyt S. Vandenberg, Memorandum for the President Harry S. Truman. Central

    Intelligence Group, Washington, November 26, 1946. First classified as top-secret,

    now in the Harry Truman library.

15. 15  Trevor Barnes, The Secret Cold War: The CIA and American Foreign Policy in

    Europe, 1946-1956. In: The Historical Journal, Vol. 24, No. 2, 1981, p. 413.

16. 16  Quoted in Jan de Willems, Gladio (Brussels: Editions EPO, 1991), p. 35.

17. 17  Jean-Francois Brozzu-Gentile, L' affaire Gladio (Paris: Editions Albin Michel, 1994),

    p. 190.

18. 18  Christopher Simpson, Blowback: America's Recruitment of Nazis and its Effects on the

    Cold War (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1988), p. 127.

19. 19  Senato delta Repubblica. Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul terrorismo in Italia e

    sulle cause della mancata individuazione dei responsabiliy delle stragi: Il terrorismo, le stragi ed il contesto storico politico. Redatta dal presidente della Commissione, Senatore Giovanni Pellegrino. Roma 1995, p. 36.

20. 20  Irwin Wall, The United States and the Making of Postwar France, 1945-1954 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 150.

21. 21  Faligot and Krop, Piscine, p. 88. And Jacques Baud: Encyclopedic du renseignement et des services secrets (Paris: Lavauzelle, 1997), p. 546.

22. 22  No author specified, Spotlight: Western Europe: Stay-Behind. In: French periodical Intelligence Newsletter. Le Monde du Renseignement, December 5, 1990.

23. 23  Faligot and Krop, Piscine, p. 90.

24. 24  Ibid., their interview with Louis Mouchon. Ibid., Piscine, p. 89.

25. 25  Faligot and Kaufer, Espions, p. 57.

26. 26  British weekly The Economist, April 16, 1994.

27. 27  Jonathan Kwitny, The CIA's Secret Armies in Europe: An International Story. In: The

    Nation, April 6, 1992, pp. 446 and 447.

28. 28  Ibid.

29. 29  Ibid.

30. 30  Italian periodical Europeo, January 18, 1991.

276

31 The Italian daily L'Unita published the document in Italian in a special edition on

November 14, 1990.

32. 32  The document is quoted in Roberto Faenza, Il malaffare. Dall' America di Kennedy all'Italia, a Cuba, al Vietnam (Milano: Editore Arnoldo Mondadori, 1978), p. 313.

33. 33  Faenza,Malaffare,p.313

34. 34  Gentile,Gladio,p.144.

35. 35  French daily Le Monde, November 16, 1990. And Pietro Cedomi: Service secrets,

    guerre froide et 'stay-behind. Part II': La mise en place des resaux. In: Belgian periodical

    Fire! Le Magazin de l'Homme d'Action, September/October 1991, pp. 74-80.

36. 36  Faligot and Krop: Piscine. p. 165.

37. 37  French daily Le Monde, January 12, 1998.

38. 38  Douglas Porch: The French Secret Services: From the Dreyfus Affair to the Gulf War

    (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1995), p. 395.

39. 39  Porch, Secret Services, p. 395.

40. 40  This description of Operation Ressurection is from Ph. Bernert who offers it in his

    book: Roger Wybot et la bataille pur la DST. Quoted in Gentile, Gladio, p. 286.

41. 41  Porch, Secret Service, p. 396.

42. 42  Ibid.

43. 43  Ibid., p. 408.

44. 44  Jonathan Kwitny, The CIA's Secret Armies in Europe: An International Story. In: The

    Nation, April 6, 1992, pp. 446 and 447.

45. 45  William Blum, Killing Hope: US Military and CIA interventions since World War II

    (Maine: Common Courage Press, 1995), p. 149.

46. 46  Ibid.

47. 47  Ibid.

48. 48  Porch, Secret Services, p. 398.

49. 49  As revealed for instance by former 11th Demi Brigade Du Choc commander officer

    Erwan Bergot in his memoirs: Le Dossier Rouge. Services Secrets Contre FLN (Paris:

    Grasset Publishers, 1976)

50. 50  Erich Schmidt Eenboom in the 1990s wrote on Gladio and the secret French terror oper-

    ations in his unpublished nine-pages essay Die 'Graue' und die 'Rote' Hand. Geheimdi- enste in Altenstadt. Both quotes Ibid., pp. 3 and 7. French terrorist operations against the FLN in Germany included: Assassination, by machine gun, of FLN General Secretary Ait Acene in Bonn on November 5, 1958. Assassination, by a single short-range shot of FLN member Abd el Solvalar in the railyway station of Saarbrucken on January 19, 1959. Assassination of Lorenzen, friend of Hamburger arms producer Otto Schluter, by a bomb explosion in Schluters warehouse on September 28, 1956. On June 3, 1957 Schliiter himself survived an assassination attack, but his mother was killed in the event (ibid.).

51. 51  British daily Sunday Times, October 12, 1997. And French daily Le Monde, October 17, 1996.

52. 52  Jean-Luc Einaudi, La Bataille de Paris (Paris: Seuil, 1991).

53. 53  Swiss weekly Wochenzeitung, December 14, 1990.

54. 54  British daily Sunday Times, October 12, 1997. And French daily Le Monde, October 17,

    1996.

55. 55  Ibid.

56. 56  Jeffrey M. Bale, Right wing Terrorists and the Extraparliamentary Left in Post World War 2 Europe: Collusion or Manipulation? In: Lobster Magazine (UK), Nr. 2, October 1989, p. 6.

57. 57  Jonathan Kwitny, The CIA's Secret Armies in Europe: An International Story. In: The Nation, April 6, 1992, pp. 446 and 447.

58. 58  Porch, Secret Services, p. 409.

59. 59  Ibid., p. 419.

277

60 Stato Maggiore delta Difesa. Servizio Informationi delle Forze Armate. Ufficio

R Sezione SAD: Le forze speciali del SIFAR e l'operazione GLADIO. Roma, l Giugno 1959. The document is contained in Mario Coglitore (ed.), La Notte dei Gladiatori. Omissioni e silenze della Repubblica (Padova: Calusca Edizioni, 1992), pp. 118-130.

61. 61  Belgian Parliamentary Commission of Enquiry into Gladio, as summarised in British periodical Statewatch, January/February 1992.

62. 62  Jan de Willems, Gladio (Brussels: Editions EPO, 1991), p. 24.

63. 63  Willems, Gladio, p. 81.

64. 64  Quoted in Willan, op. cit., p. 27.

65. 65  Arthur Rowse, Gladio. The Secret US War to subvert Italian Democracy. In: Covert

    Action Quarterly, No. 49, Summer 1994, p. 3.

66. 66  Baud, Encyclopedie, p. 546.

67. 67  Porch, Secret Services, p. 439.

68. 68  Ibid., p. 438.

69. 69  Ibid., p. 395.

70. 70  Ibid., p. 439.

71. 71  Ibid., p. 437.

72. 72  Ibid., p. 438, referring to Foccart's biographer Pierre Pean.

73. 73  Ibid., p. 439.

74. 74  Baud, Encyclopedie, p. 546 and French daily Le Monde, November 16, 1990.

75. 75  Porch, Secret Services, p. 446. The report of the French parliamentarian commission

    into SAC is called: 'Rapport de la commission d'enquete sur les activity du Service d'Action Civique', Assembled Nationale. Seconde session ordinaire de 1981-1982, No. 955, Alain Moreau, Paris 1982.

76. 76  Intelligence Newsletter, November 21, 1990.

77. 77  Porch, Secret Service, p. 590.

78. 78  Ibid., p. 446.

79. 79  Ibid., p. 404.

80. 80  Jonathan Kwitny, The CIA's Secret Armies in Europe: An International Story. In: The Nation, April 6, 1992, pp. 446 and 447.

81. 81  French daily Le Monde, November 14, 1990. International news agency Reuters, November 12, 1990. British daily The Guardian, November 14,1990.

82. 82  Quoted in Gentile, Gladio, p. 141. Also quoted by international news service Associated Press, November 13,1990.

8 THE SECRET WAR IN SPAIN

1. 1  In his introduction to Ian Mac Dougall, Voices from the Spanish Civil War. Personal Recollections of Scottish Volunteers in Republican Spain, 1936-1939 (Edinburgh: Polygon, 1986).

2. 2  Paul Vallely, Romancing the past: Sixty years ago, thousands of men and women went to fight in the Spanish Civil War. Are there any ideals for which we would take up arms today? In: British daily The Independent, July 22, 1996.

3. 3  Brian Catchcart, They kept the red flag flying: It is 60 years since General Franco launched his assault on the Spanish Republic and thousands of young Britons joined the International Brigades to defend it. What drove them to leave homes, jobs and fam- ilies, risking their lives? And what did they find when they returned? In: British weekly The Independent on Sunday, July 21, 1996.

4. 4  US daily The New York Times, October 16, 1936.

5. 5  James Hopkins, Into the Heart of Fire. The British in the Spanish Civil War (Stanford:

   Stanford University Press, 1998), p. 294.

278

6 Example taken from the British daily The New Statesman, April 26, 1958.

7 Calvo Sotelo asegura que Espana no fue informada, cuando entro en la OT'AN, de la

existencia de Gladio. Moran sostiene que no oyo hablar de la red clandestina mientras fue ministro de Exteriores. In: Spanish daily El Pais, November 21, 1990.

8 Roger Paligot and Remi Kaufer, Le Maitres Espions. Histoire mondiale du renseignement. De la Guerre Froide a nos jours (Paris: Editions Robert Laffont, 1994), p. 282.

9 Faligot and Kaufer, Espions, p 284.

10. 10  For a good biography on Franco compare Paul Preston, The folly of appeasement: Franco: A Biography (London. HarperCollins, 1993).

11. 11  Faligot and Kaufer, Espions, pp. 281-285.

12. 12  Calvo Sotelo asegura que Espana no fue informada, cuando entro en la OTAN, de la

    existencia de Gladio. Moron sostiene que no oyo hablar de la red clandestina mientrasfue

    ministro de Exteriores. In: Spanish daily El Pais, November 21, 1990.

13. 13  Faligot and Kaufer, Espions, p. 55.

14. 14  Angel Luis de la Calle, Gladio: Ligacoes obscuras em Espanha. In: Portuguese daily

    Expresso, December 8, 1990.

15Josef Manola, Spaniens Geheimdienste vor der Durchleuchtung. Naehe zu

Rechtsradikalen.

In: German daily Der Standard, November 17, 1990.

16. 16  The Swiss Gladio investigator judge Cornu later simply claimed that Moyen was an

    untrustworthy source.

17. 17  Calvo Sotelo asegura que Espana no fue informada, cuando entro en la OTAN, de la

    existencia de Gladio. Moran sostiene que no oyo hablar de la red clandestina mientras fue

    ministro de Exteriores. In: Spanish daily El Pais, November 21, 1990.

18. 18  Faligot and Kaufer, Espions, p. 285.

19. 19  Pietro Cedomi, Services Secrets, Guerre Froide et 'stay-behind' Part III. Repetoire des

    resaux S/B. In: Belgian periodical Fire! Le Magazin de l'Homme d'Action, November/

    December 1991, p. 83.

20. 20  Stuart Christie, Martin Lee and Kevin Coogan, Protected by the West's Secret Services,

    Hired by South American's Drug Barons, the Man they called 'Shorty' Terrorised Two Continents. In: British periodical News on Sunday Extra, May 31, 1987. Christie is a leading expert on Delle Chiaie. Compare his book Stuart Christie, Stefano Delle Chiaie (London: Anarchy Publications, 1984).

21. 21  Miguel Gonzalez, Un informe oficial italiano implica en el crimen de Atocha al 'ultra' Cicuttini, relacionado con Gladio. El fascista fue condenado en el proceso que ha sacado a la luz la estructura secreta de la OTAN. In: Spanish daily El Pais, December 2, 1990.

22. 22  Senato delta Repubblica. Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul terrorismo in Italia e sulle cause della mancata individuazione dei responsabiliy delle stragi: II ter- rorismo, le stragi ed il contesto storico politico. Redatta dal presidente della Commis- sione, Senatore Giovanni Pellegrino. Roma 1995, p. 203.

23. 23  Angel Luis de la Calle, Gladio: ligacoes obscuras em Espanha. In: Portuguese daily Expresso, December 8, 1990. And Miguel Gonzalez, Un informe oficial italiano implica en el crimen de Atocha al 'ultra' Cicuttini, relacionado con Gladio. El fascista fue condenado en el proceso que ha sacado a la luz la estructura secreta de la OTAN. In: Spanish daily El Pais, December 2, 1990.

24. 24  International news agency Agence France Press, April 17, 1998.

25. 25  Gerardo Serravalle, Gladio (Roma: Edizione Associate, 1991). Another Italian General

    who commanded the Gladio army from 1974 to 1986, Paolo Inzerilli, also wrote a somewhat apologetic book on the secret army, Paolo Inzerilli, Gladio. La Verita negata (Bologna: Edizioni Analisi, 1995).

26. 26  Serravalle, Gladio, p. 81.

27. 27  Ibid, p. 82.

279

28 Ibid, p. 82.

29. 29  Pietro Cedomi, Services Secrets, Guerre Froide et 'stay-behind' Part III. Repetoire des resaux S/B. In: Belgian periodical Fire! Le Magazin de l'Homme d'Action, November/ December 1991, p. 83.

30. 30  Josef Manola, Spaniens Geheimdienste vor der Durchleuchtung. Naehe zu Rechtsradikalen. In: German daily Der Standard, November 17, 1990.

31. 31  Spain says it never joined Gladio. TV says agents trained there. Reuters, international news service, November 23, 1990. Compare also Leo Muller, Gladio. Das Erbe des Kalten Krieges. Der NATO Geheimbund und sein deutscher Vorlaufer (Hamurg: Rowohlt, 1991), p. 53.

32. 32  Calvo Sotelo asegura que Espana no fue informada, cuando entro en la OTAN, de la existencia de Gladio. Moran sostiene que no oyo hablar de la red clandestina mientras fue ministro de Exteriores. In: Spanish daily El Pais, November 21, 1990.

33. 33  Calvo Sotelo asegura que Espana no fue informada, cuando entro en la OTAN, de la existencia de Gladio. Moran sostiene que no oyo hablar de la red clandestina mientras fue ministro de Exteriores. In: Spanish daily El Pais, November 21, 1990.

34. 34  Germany to dissolve Gladio resistance network. Reuters international news service, November 16,1990.

35. 35  IU recabara en Bruselas informacion sobre la red Gladio en Espana. In: Spanish daily El Pais, November 20, 1990.

36. 36  El servicio espanol de inteligencia mantiene estrechas relaciones con la OTAN. Serra ordena indagar sobre la red Gladio en Espana. In: Spanish daily El Pais, November 16,1990

37. 37  Spain says it never joined Gladio. TV says agents trained there. Reuters international news service, November 23, 1990.

38. 38  IU recabara en Bruselas informacion sobre la red Gladio en Espana. In: Spanish daily El Pais, November 20, 1990.

39. 39  Calvo Sotelo asegura que Espana no fue informada, cuando entro en la OTAN, de la existencia de Gladio. Moran sostiene que no oyo hablar de la red clandestina mientras fue ministro de Exteriores. In: Spanish daily El Pais, November 21, 1990.

9 THE SECRET WAR IN PORTUGAL

1. 1  John Palmer, Undercover NATO Group 'may have had terror links'. In: British daily The Guardian, November 10, 1990.

2. 2  Michael Parenti, Against Empire (San Francisco: City Light Books, 1995), p. 143.

3. 3  Joao Paulo Guerra, 'Gladio' actuou em Portugal. In: Portuguese daily O Jornal,

   November 16, 1990.

4. 4  Senato della Repubblica. Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul terrorismo in Italia e

   sulle cause della mancata individuazione dei responsabiliy delle stragi: Il terrorismo, le stragi ed il contesto storico politico. Redatta dal presidente della Commissione, Senatore Giovanni Pellegrino. Roma 1995, pp. 204 and 241.

5. 5  Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul terrorismo in Italia e sulle cause della man- cata individuazione dei responsabili delle stragi. 12th session, March 20, 1997. URL: www.parlamento.it/parlam/bicam/terror/stenografici/stenol2.htm.

6. 6  Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul terrorismo in Italia e sulle cause della mancata individuazione dei responsabili delle stragi. 9th session, February 12, 1997. URL: www.parlamento.it/parlam/bicam/terror/stenografici/steno9.htm.

7. 7  Jeffrey M. Bale, Right wing Terrorists and the Extraparliamentary Left in Post World War 2 Europe: Collusion or Manipulation? In: British periodical Lobster Magazine, Nr. 2, October 1989, p. 6.

8. 8  French periodical Paris Match, November 1974. Quoted in Stuart Christie, Stefano delle Chiaie (London: Anarchy Publications, 1984), p. 27.

280

9 Egmont Koch and Oliver Scrom, Deckname Aginter Die Geschichte einer faschistischen

Terror Organisation, p. 4. (Unpublished essay of 17 pages. Undated, ca. 1998).

10 See Christie, delle Chiaie, passim.

11. 11  Ibid., p. 29.

12. 12  This document was a l l e g e d l y found in the former office of Guerain-Serac after the

    Portuguese revolution of 1974. It is contained in the Belgian dictionary on terrorism in Belgium by Manuel Abramowicz. See entry 'Guerin Serac' in: Le dictionnaire des annees de plomb belges. On the Internet: www.users.skynet.be/avancees/idees.htm.

13. 13  Quoted in Christie, delle Chiaie, p. 32. Also in Lobster, October 1989, p. 18.

14. 14  Ibid., p. 30.

15. 15  Joao Paulo Guerra, 'Gladio' actuou em Portugal. In: Portuguese daily O Jornal,

    November 16, 1990.

16. 16  Ibid. And Christie, delle Chiaie, p. 30.

17. 17  Senato del la Repubblica. Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul terrorismo in

    Italia e sulle cause della mancata individuazione dei responsabiliy delle stragi: Il terrorismo, le stragi ed il contesto storico politico. Redatta dal presidente della Commissione, Senatore Giovanni Pellegrino. Roma 1995, p. 157.

18. 18  Fabrizio Calvi and Frederic Laurent produced a remarkable documentary on the massacre entitled Piazza Fontana: Storia di un Complotto broadcasted on December 11, 1997 at 8:50 p.m. on the Italian state television Rai Due. And was shown again in its French version, L' Orchestre Noir: La Strategic de la tension, in two blocks on January 13, 1998 and January 14, 1998 at 20:45 on French Channel Arte. Relying strongly on oral history they questioned a large number of witnesses including the judges that for years investigated the massacres, Guido Salvini and Gerardo D'Ambrosio, as well as right-wing extremists Stefano Delle Chiaies, Amos Spiazzi, Guido Giannettini, Vincenzo Vinciguerra, and officials including Captain Labruna and Prime Minister Gulio Andreotti of the DCI. Moreover they interviewed Victor Marchetti and Marc Wyatt of the CIA.

19. 19  Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul terrorismo in Italia e sulle cause della mancata individuazione dei responsabili delle stragi. 9th session, February 12, 1997. URL: www.parlamento.it/parlam/bicam/terror/stenografici/steno9.htm.

20. 20  Philip Willan, Terrorists 'helped by CIA' to Stop Rise of Left in Italy. In: British daily The Guardian, March 26, 2001. Willan is an expert on US covert action in Italy. He published the very valuable book Puppetmasters. The Political Use of Terrorism in Italy (London: Constable, 1991).

21. 21  Italian daily La Stampa, June 22, 1996.

22. 22  Peter Dale Scott, Transnational Repression: Parafascism and the US. In: British

    periodical Lobster Magazine, Nr. 12, 1986, p. 16.

23. 23  Joao Paulo Guerra, 'Gladio' actuou em Portugal. In: Portuguese daily O Jornal,

    November 16, 1990.

24. 24  Koch and Schrom, Aginter, p. 8.

25. 25  Quoted in Christie, delle Chiaie, p. 28.

26. 26  Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul terrorismo in Italia e sulle cause della man-

    cata individuazione dei responsabili delle stragi. 9th session, February 12,1997. URL;

    www.parlamento.it/parlam/bicam/terror/stenografici/steno9.htm.

27. 27  Koch and Schrom, Aginter, pp. 11-12.

28. 28  Portuguese daily Expresso, November 17, 1990.

29. 29  Portuguese daily Diario De Noticias, November 17, 1990.

30. 30  No author specified, Ministro nega conhecimento da rede Gladio. Franco Nogueira

    disse ao DN que nem Salazar saberia da organizacao. In: Portuguese daily Diario De

    Noticias, November 17, 1990.

31. 31  Ibid.

281

32 No author specified, Manfred Woerner explica Gladio. Investigadas ligacoes a

extrema-direita. In: Portuguese daily Expresso, November 24, 1990.
33 Joao Paulo Guerra, 'Gladio' actuou em Portugal. In: Portuguese daily O Jornal,

November 16, 1990.

10 THE SECRET WAR IN BELGIUM

1. 1  Enquete parlementaire sur l'existence en Belgique d'un reseau de renseignements clandestin international, rapport fait au nom de la commission d'enquete par MM. Erdman et Hasquin. Document Senat, session de 1990-1991. Brussels, p. 24. Hereafter quoted as Belgian Senate 1991 Gladio Report. Upon the discovery of the secret stay-behind armies in Western Europe in late 1990, Belgian socialist parliamentarian Dirk van der Maelen had introduced a request in the Belgian parliament which suggested the creation of a parliamentary commission to investigate the secret network. The Senate adopted the law with 143 votes in favour, 1 vote against and 5 abstentions. With 19 Senators and presided by Senator Roger Lallemand, the Belgian Gladio investigation held 57 sessions and heard and recorded the testimony of 37 persons. These included three ministers, the chief of staff of the army, the chief of the police, the chief of the secret service SGR, several former chiefs of the SGR, several instructors of the SGR, and specifically personnel of the SGR Gladio sections SDRA8 and STC/Mob. Also witnesses who wanted to remain anonymous were heard. 'Certain auditions lasted five or six hours. They took place under conditions of total calmness.' On October 1, 1991, the Belgian Gladio Senate Commission presented its 250-pages strong final report and concluded its work. Together with the Report on Gladio of the Italian Senate and the report on P26 of the Swiss parliament the Belgium report represents a solid democratic performance and ranges among the best investigations into the stay-behind network.

2. 2  Belgian Senate 1991 Gladio Report, p. 33.

3. 3  Ibid., pp. 148 and 149.

4. 4  Ibid., p. 29.

5. 5  Ibid.

6. 6  Ibid., pp. 24 and 25.

7. 7  Mackenzie, W. J. M., History of the Special Operations Executive: Britain and the

   Resistance in Europe (London: British Cabinet Office, 1948), p. 976, Unpublished

   original of the Public Records Office London, publication with Frank Cass forthcoming.

8. 8  Mackenzie, Special Operations Executive, p. 981.

9. 9  Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Ringmasters. First of the total three Francovich Gladio

   documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 10, 1992.

10. 10  Ibid.

11. 11  For more details on Lahaut's assassination, see the research by Etienne Verhoyen and

    Rudi Van Doorslaer, L'assassinat de Julien Lahaut. Une histoire de l'anticommunisme

    en Belgique (Anvers: EPO Press, 1987).

12. 12  The letter is given in full in the Belgian Senate 1991 Gladio Report, pp. 212-213.

13. 13  Belgian Senate 1991 Gladio Report, p. 213. Also quoted in British daily The Observer,

    June 7, 1992.

14. 14  Ibid., p. 18.

15. 15  Frans Kluiters, De Nederlandse inlichtingen en veiligheidsdiensten (1993), p. 311.

16. 16  Jan de Willems, Gladio (Brussels: Editions EPO, 1991), p. 147.

17. 17  Kluiters, Nederlandse, p. 311. Willems, Gladio, p. 147.

18. 18  Belgian Senate 1991 Gladio Report, op. cit., p. 18.

19. 19  Quoted in Willems, Gladio, p. 147.

20. 20  Ibid., p. 148.

282

21 Ibid.,p. 149.

22  Belgian Senate 1991 Gladio Report, p. 22. 23  Ibid., pp. 20 and 21. 24 Michel Van Ussel, Georges 923. Un agent du Gladio belge parle. Temoignage (Brussels: Editions la Longue Vue, 1992), p. 150. 25 British periodical Statewatch, January 1992.

26 Belgian Senate 1991 Gladio Report, p. 22.

27  British periodical Statewatch, July/August 1992. 28  Belgian Senate 1991 Gladio Report, pp. 6, 29, 30. And Van Ussel, Georges 923, pp. 19-27. 29  Ibid., p. 38. 30  Ibid., p. 58. 31  Ibid.,p.55. 32  Ibid. 33  Quoted in Belgian Senate 1991 Gladio Report, p. 25. 34  Ibid. 35  Ibid., p. 137. 36  Ibid., p. 62. 37  Van Ussel, Georges 923, p. 141. 38  Belgian Senate 1991 Gladio Report, p. 57. 39  Van Ussel, Georges 923, p. 81. 40  Belgian Senate 1991 Gladio Report, p. 61. 41  Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Ringmasters. First of the total three Francovich Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 10, 1992. 42  Van Ussel, Georges 923, p. 79. 43  Ibid., p. 59. 44  Ibid., p. 86. 45  Ibid., pp. 51 and 107. 46  Belgian Senate 1991 Gladio Report, p. 28. 47  Ibid., p. 33. 48  Ibid., p. 37. 49  Ibid., p. 45. 50  Ibid., p. 59. 51  Ibid.,p.47. 52  Ibid., p. 45. 53  Ibid., p. 66. 54  Ibid., p. 44. 55  Ibid., p. 47. 56  Van Ussel, Georges 923, p. 43. 57  Ibid., p. 57. 58  Belgian Senate 1991 Gladio Report, p. 78. 59  Hugh O'Shaughnessy, Gladio. Europe's best kept secret. They were the agents who were to 'stay behind' if the Red Army overran Western Europe. But the network that was set up with the best intentions degenerated in some countries into a front for terrorism and far-right political agitation. In: British daily The Observer, June 7, 1992. 60  Belgian Senate 1991 Gladio Report, pp. 47-48. 61  Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Foot Soldiers. Third of the total three Francovich Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 24, 1992. 62  Ibid. 63  Ibid. 64  Ibid. 65  Ibid.

283

66 Hugh O'Shaughnessy, Gladio, Europe's best kept secret. They were the agents who

were to 'stay-behind' if the Red Army overran Western Europe. But the network that was set up with the best intentions degenerated in some countries into a front for terrorism and far-right political agitation. In: British daily The Observer, June 7, 1992.

67. 67  Manuel Abramowicz, Le dictionnaire des 'annes de plomb' belges. Online: www.users. skynet.be/avancees/idees.html. For more details on CCC, see also Jos Vander Velpen, Les CCC - L'Etat et le terrorisme (Anvers: EPO Dossier, 1988).

68. 68  Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Foot Soldiers. Third of the total three Francovich Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 24, 1992.

69. 69  Quoted in Willems, Gladio, p. 13.

70. 70  Chronology of the crimes attributed to the Killers of Brabant:

Date

23.12.1982

Place
Maubeuge, Brabant Wavre, Brabant

Mons, Brabant Uccle, Brabant Hal, Brabant

Braine-l'Alleud, Brabant Ohain, Brabant
Beersel, Brabant

Anderlues, Brabant Braine-l'Alleud, Brabant

Overijse, Brabant Aalst, Brabant

Victims
1 wounded
1 killed, 3 wounded

1 killed
1 wounded
1 killed, 1 wounded

1 wounded 1 killed

1 killed,

2 killed 3 killed,

5 killed, 8 killed,

Target
attack on food shop attack on arms shop

assassination of a taxi driver
attack on Delhaize supermarket

attack on Colruyt food shop

firefight with police
attack on restaurant
attack on Delhaize supermarket
attack on jeweller's store

14.8.1982

30.9.1982

Hoeilaart, Brabant Bruxelles, Brabant

2 wounded 1 killed

firing on BSR members attack on hotel Chevaliers

30.9.1982

9.1.1983

25.2.1983

3.3.1983

Temse, Brabant Nijvel, Brabant

1 killed, 1 wounded 3 killed, 1 wounded

attack on textile shop attack on Colruyt food shop

10.9.1983

17.9.1983

17.9.1983

2.10.1983

7.10.1983

3 wounded

1 wounded 1 wounded 9 wounded

attack on supermarket attack on supermarket attack on supermarket

Delhaize Delhaize Delhaize

1.12.1983

27.9.1985

27.9.1985

9.11.1985

Quoted after Chambre des Representants de Belgique: Enquete parlementaire sur les adaptions necessaires en matiiere d'organisation et de fonctionnement de Vappareil policier et judiciaire, en fonction des difficulties surgies lors de l'enquete sur 'les tuerurs du Brabant'. Rapport fait au now de la comission d'enquete par MM. Renaat Landuyt et Jean-Jacques Viseur. Brussels, October 14, 1997, pp. 21-22.

71. 71  Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Foot Soldiers. Third of the total three Francovich Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 24, 1992.

72. 72  Marcus Warren, The Slaughter that still Haunts Belgium. In: British weekly Sunday Telegraph, November 26, 1995.

73. 73  Belgian Senate 1991 Gladio Report, p. 100.

74. 74  Ibid., p. 153.

75. 75  Ibid., p. 141.

76. 76  Ibid., p. 53.

284

77 Ibid., p. 54. Compare also Boris Johnson. Secret war over identities of Gladio agents.

In: British daily The Daily Telegraph, March 29, 1991.

78. 78  Belgian Senate 1991 Gladio Report, p. 54

79. 79  Ibid., p. 51.

80. 80  British periodical Statewatch, May/June 1996.

81. 81  Chambre des Representants de Belgique: Enquete parlementaire sur les adaptions

    necessaires en matiiere d'organisation et de fonctionnement de l'appareil policier et judiciaire, en fonction des difficulties surgies lors de l'enquete sur 'les tuerurs du Brabant'. Rapport fait an now de la comission d'enquite par MM. Renaat Landuyt et Jean-Jacques Viseur. Brussels, October 14, 1997.

82. 82  John Palmer, Trial Fuels Claims of Right-Wing Belgian Terrorist Conspiracy. In: British daily The Guardian, January 28, 1988.

83. 83  Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Foot Soldiers. Third of the total three Francovich Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 24, 1992.

84. 84  Ibid.

85. 85  Ibid.

86. 86  Ibid.

87. 87  Phil Davison, A Very Right-Wing Coup Plot Surfaces in Belgium. In: British weekly

    The Independent on Sunday, January 24, 1990.

88. 88  Ed. Vulliamy, Secret agents, freemasons, fascists... and a top-level campaign of

    political 'destabilisation': 'Strategy of tension' that brought carnage and cover-up.

    In: British daily The Guardian, December 5, 1990.

89. 89  Willems, Gladio, p. 151.

90. 90  Reuters international news service, October 1, 1990 and January 25, 1988.

91. 91  Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Foot Soldiers. Third of the total three Francovich

    Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 24, 1992.

92. 92  Ibid.

93. 93  Phil Davison, A Very Right-Wing Coup Plot Surfaces in Belgium. In: British weekly The Independent on Sunday, January 24, 1990.

94. 94  Manuel Abramowicz, he dictionnaire des 'annes de plomb' beiges. Online: www.users.skynet.be/avancees/idees.html.

95. 95  Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Foot Soldiers. Third of the total three Francovich Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 24, 1992.

96. 96  Manuel Abramowicz, Le dictionnaire des 'annes de plomb' beiges. Online: www.users.skynet.be/avancees/idees.html.

97. 97  Allan Francovich: Gladio: The Foot Soldiers. Third of the total three Francovich Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 24, 1992.

98. 98  Ibid.

99. 99  Ibid.

100. 100  Ibid.

101. 101  Ibid.

102. 102  Ibid.

103. 103  Ibid.

104. 104  Hugh O'Shaughnessy, Gladio. Europe's best kept secret. They were the agents who

     were to 'stay behind' if the Red Army overran Western Europe. But the network that was set up with the best intentions degenerated in some countries into a front for terrorism and far-right political agitation. In: British daily The Observer, June 7, 1992.

105. 105  Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Foot Soldiers. Third of the total three Francovich Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 24, 1992.

106. 106  Ibid.

107Manuel Abramowicz, Le dictionnaire des 'annes de plomb' beiges. Online:

www.users.skynet.be/avancees/idees.html. 285

11 THE SECRET WAR IN THE NETHERLANDS

1 Paul Koedijk, De Geheimste Dienst. Gladio in Nederland. De geschiedenis van een halve eeuw komplot tegen de vijand. In: Vrij Nederland, January 25, 1992, p. 9. Information on the Dutch stay-behind as of now stems almost exclusively from two articles of Paul Koedijk of the Amsterdam-based Netherlands Institute for War Documentation. With the help of interviews with former Dutch stay-behind members and archive work Koedijk has succeeded in bringing some light into the history of the Dutch secret army I&O, while arguably more research is needed above all on the secretive O branch of the network.

2  Koedijk, Geheimste Dienst, p. 9. 3  Frans Kluiters, De Nederlandse inlichtingen en veiligheidsdiensten (Gravenhage: Sdu, 1993), p. 304. 4  Koedijk, Geheimste Dienst, p. 9. 5  Officially the BVD was created by royal decree in August 1949. During the four immediate post-war years there was some reshuffling of the Dutch domestic secret service structures, with first the creation of the BNV (Bureau Nationale Veiligheid) in 1945 which basically had the task to unmask German agents left behind in the Netherlands after Allied victory. Then the BNV was restructured in spring 1946, working for a brief period under the label CVD (Central Veiligheidsdienst) until finally in August 1949 the BVD succeeded both BNV and CVD and became the domestic Dutch secret service. 6  During most of its history the IDB worked in the dark, and only rarely draws upon itself public, parliamentarian, academic or media attention. This situation changed abruptly in the 1960s after a botched espionage affair which led to the arrest and imprisonment in the Soviet Union of the Dutch 'tourists' Evert Reydon and Louw de Jager. Several years later a number of scandals including domestic operations led to such strong criticism of the IDB that Prime Minister Lubbers eventually closed the service down. For more details on the IDB, see Cees Wiebes and Bob de Graaf, Villa Maarheeze. The Netherlands Foreign Intelligence Service (The Hague: Dutch Government Printing Office, 1992). Wiebes and Graaf have faced many difficulties when researching for their book. Former and active intelligence officials were explicitly warned not to speak with the authors. The authors had to go to court several times, using the Dutch Freedom of Information Act to overcome the resistance of the Dutch Cabinet, to gain documents and to get the book itself released. More than 150 of the record interviews with intelligence officials were made, and what resulted is arguably the best history available on the IDB. Wiebes and Graaf also came across documents on the early roots of the Dutch Gladio and published in Dutch on the topic. Compare Bob de Graaff and Cees Wiebes, Gladio der vrije jongens: een particuliere geheime dienst in Koude Oorlogstijd (Gravenhage: Sdu, 1992). 7  Koedijk, Geheimste Dienst, p. 10. 8  Paul Koedijk, Dossier Gladio. Nederland was voorbereid op een nieuwe oorlog. In: Vrij Nederland, July 11, 1992, p. 34. 9  Kluiters, Nederlandse, p. 306.

10 Koedijk, Geheimste Dienst, p. 13. 11 Kluiters, Nederlandse, p. 310.
12 Koedijk, Dossier Gladio, p. 36.
13 Ibid.

14 Ibid.
15 Ibid.
16 Kluiters, Nederlandse, p. 314.
17 Koedijk, Geheimste Dienst, p. 10. 18 Ibid., p. 11.
19 Koedijk, Dossier Gladio, p. 34.

286

20 Kluiters, Nederlansde, p. 306.

21. 21  Ibid.

22. 22  Koedijk, Geheimste Dienst, p. 12.

23. 23  Kluiters,Nederlansde,p.308.

24. 24  Kocdijk, Dossier Gladio, p. 35.

25. 25  Ibid.

26. 26  Koedijk, Geheimste Dienst, p. 11.

27. 27  Ibid., p. 12.

28. 28  Kluiters,Nederlandse,p.311.

29. 29  Koedijk, Geheimste Dienst, p. 12.

30. 30  Kluiters, Nederlandse, p. 311.

31. 31  Koedijk,GeheimsteDienst,p.12.

32. 32  Ibid.,p.11

33. 33  Ibid.

34. 34  Ibid., p. 12

35. 35  Ibid.,p.13

36. 36  Kluiters,Nederlandse,p.308.

37. 37  Koedijk,DossierGladio,p.34.

38. 38  Ibid., p. 35.

39. 39  Koedijk, Geheimste Dienst, p. 12.

40. 40  Ibid.

41. 41  Ibid.

42. 42  Ibid.

43. 43  Koedijk, Dossier Gladio, p. 37.

44. 44  Koedijk, Geheimste Dienst, p. 13.

45. 45  Both quotes Koedijk, Dossier Gladio, p. 36.

46. 46  Ibid.

47. 47  Koedijk, Geheimste Dienst, p. 8.

48. 48  International news service Associated Press, November 14, 1990. The entire text of

    Lubber's letter was reprinted in the Dutch daily NRC Handelsblatt, November 14 1990: 'Brief premier Lubbers "geheime organisatie"'. It is also contained as Kamerstuk Nr. 21895 among the official papers of the Dutch parliament.

49. 49  International news agency Associated Press, November 14, 1990.

50. 50  Ibid.

51. 51  Ibid., November 21, 1990.

52. 52  British daily The Guardian, December 5, 1990.

53. 53  British political magazine Statewatch September/October 1993 quoting Dutch daily Dagblad of September 7, 1993.

54. 54  International news service Reuters, December 14, 1993, quoting Dutch daily NCR Handelsblad.

12 THE SECRET WAR IN LUXEMBURG

13 THE SECRET WAR IN DENMARK

1 All data from the declarations of Luxemburg Prime Minister Jacques Santer to parlia- ment on November 14, 1990. Quoted in full in the Luxemburg daily Luxemburger Wort, November 15, 1990.

1 Iver Hoj, Ogsa Danmark havde hemmelig haer efter anden verdenskrig. Danish daily Berlingske Tidende, November 25, 1990. Journalist Iver Hoj offered with this article

287

what as of now still remains most probably the best information on the Danish

stay-behind army.

2. 2  Iver Hoj, Ogsa Danmark havde hemmelig haer efter anden verdenskrig. Danish daily Berlingske Tidende, November 25, 1990,

3. 3  Ibid.

4. 4  Ibid.

5. 5  William Colby, Honorable Men: My life in the CIA (New York: Simon & Schuster,

   1978), pp. 82 and 83.

6. 6  Iver Hoj, Ogsa Danmark havde hemmelig haer efter anden verdenskrig. Danish daily

   Berlingske Tidende, November 25, 1990.

7. 7  Ibid.

8. 8  Ibid.

9. 9  Ibid.

10. 10  Quoted in Jacob Andersen, Mere mystik om dansk Gladio. Danish daily Information, November 26, 1990.

11. 11  Iver Hoj, Ogsa Danmark havde hemmelig haer efter anden verdenskrig. Danish daily Berlingske Tidende, November 25, 1990.

12. 12  Jacob Andersen, Mere mystik om dansk Gladio. Danish daily Information, November 26, 1990.

13. 13  Iver Hoj, Ogsa Danmark havde hemmelig haer efter anden verdenskrig. Danish daily Berlingske Tidende, November 25, 1990.

14. 14  Ibid.

15. 15  Jacob Andersen, Mere mystik om dansk Gladio. Danish daily Information, November 26,

    1990.

16. 16  Iver Hoj, Ogsa Danmark havde hemmelig haer efter anden verdenskrig. Danish daily

    Berlingske Tidende, November 25, 1990.

17. 17  Ibid.

18. 18  Henrik Thomsen, CIA sendte vaben til Danmark. Danish daily Jyllands Posten, April 22, 1991.

19. 19  Danish daily Extra Bladet quoted in Jacob Andersen, Mere mystik om dansk Gladio. Danish daily Information, November 26, 1990.

20. 20  Iver Hoj, Ogsa Danmark havde hemmelig haer efter anden verdenskrig. Danish daily Berlingske Tidende, November 25, 1990.

21. 21  Ibid.

22. 22  Ibid.

23. 23  Ibid.

24. 24  Jacob Andersen, Mere mystik om dansk Gladio. Danish daily Information, November 26,

    1990.

25. 25  Henrik Thomsen, CIA sendte vaben til Danmark. Danish daily Jyllands Posten,

    April 22, 1991.

26. 26  Jacob Andersen, Mere mystik om dansk Gladio. Danish daily Information, November 26,

    1990.

27. 27  Ibid.

28. 28  Ibid.

29. 29  Ibid.

30. 30  Iver Hoj, Ogsa Danmark havde hemmelig haer efter anden verdenskrig. Danish daily Berlingske Tidende, November 25, 1990.

31. 31  International news service Associated Press, November 14, 1990.

32. 32  Iver Hoj, Ogsa Danmark havde hemmelig haer efter anden verdenskrig. Danish daily

    Berlingske Tidende, November 25, 1990.

33 Ibid. 34 Ibid. 288

33 Ibid.

36 Ibid.

14 THE SECRET WAR IN NORWAY

1  Ronald Bye and Finn Sjue, Norges Hemmelige Haer - Historien om Stay Behind (Oslo: Tiden Norsk Verlag, 1995), p. 39. 2  Mrs Lygren, working as secretary at the Norwegian embassy in Moscow, was arrested by the Norwegian Security Police directed by Asbjorn Bryhn on the suspicion of hav- ing worked for the Soviets on September 14, 1965. The arrest came after former KGB agent Anatolyi Golitsyn had defected to the Americans in 1961 and spoken of an unnamed female double agent at the Norwegian embassy in Moscow to CIA's master spy hunter James Jesus Angleton. Bryhn and NIS chief Evang had never been on good working terms and the chief of the Security Police Bryhn had not informed the chief of the Secret Service Evang until after the operation had been carried out at about the time when the affair was leaked to the newspapers. This made Evang furious, who was convinced of Lygren's innocence, and rightly saw a communication problem between the police and the intelligence staff. As it turned out the accusations against Lygren seemed without ground and she was released from prison on December 15, 1965. Probably Golitsyn's information which had been fed to the Norwegians by the Americans was a case of mistaken identity. A different woman, Gunvor Galtung Haavik, who had formerly worked at the Norwegian embassy in Moscow was thereafter put under surveillance. In 1977 she was arrested in Oslo while handing documents to a KGB officer. But for Evang this was history. The Lygren confusion discredited Bryhn who together with Evang in 1966 had to leave office. 3  Quoted in Olav Riste, The Norwegian Intelligence Service 1945-1970 (London: Frank Cass, 1999), p. 16. 4  Riste: Norwegian Intelligence Service, p. 226. 5  Ibid., p. 17. 6  According to former Norwegian Intelligence officer and author Christian Christensen, quoted by the international news agency Reuters, November 4, 1988. In 1997 it was revealed and confirmed that CIA agent Alf Martens Meyer had also recruited Norwegian ship captains for covert missions in North Vietnam in the years before the United States had openly started the war. Jorgen Kosmo, Norwegian Defence Minister in 1997, said that if Meyer's men had helped South Vietnamese troops and US-trained commandos to carry out raids in North Vietnam in 1963 and 1964 the missions were in clear violation of Norwegian law (British daily The Guardian, May 1, 1997). 7  Bye and Sjue, Hemmelige Haer, p. 67. 8  Riste, Norwegian Intelligence Service, p. 16.

9 Bye and Sjue, Hemmelige Haer, p. 56.

10 Riste, Norwegian Intelligence Service, p. 28. 11 Ibid., p. 16. 12 Ibid., p. 19. 13 Ibid., p. 34. 14 Ibid., p. 19. 15 Ibid., p. 20. 16 Ibid. 17 Ibid., p. 40. 18 As Riste summarises, Ibid., p. 37. 19 Ibid., pp. 37 and 53. 20 Ibid., p. 35. 21 Ibid., p. 36.

289

22 Ibid.

23. 23  Ibid., p. 43.

24. 24  Ibid.

25. 25  Quoted in Riste. Ibid., p. 43.

26. 26  Ibid., p. 44.

27. 27  Ibid.

28. 28  Ibid., p. 46.

29. 29  Ibid., p. 47.

30. 30  Ibid., p. 48.

31. 31  Bye and Sjue, Hemmelige Haer, p. 145.

32. 32  Leo Muller, Gladio. Das Erbe des Kalten Krieges. Der NATO Geheimbund und sein

    deutscher Vorlaufer (Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1991), p. 46. And Jean-Francois Brozzu-Gentile, L' affaire Gladio (Paris: Editions Albin Michel, 1994), p. 199. The title of the secret NATO document is: 'Supplement Nr. 3 to the documents of the Civil Affairs Oplan Nr. 100-1'. No date available, but by implication before 1968.

33. 33  Riste, Norwegian Intelligence Service, p. 45.

34. 34  Roger Faligot and Remi Kaufer, Les Maitres Espions. Histoire Mondiale du Renseignement.

    Tome 2. De la Guerre Froide a nos jours (Paris: Editions Laffont, 1994), p. 62.

35. 35  Bye and Sjue, Hemmelige Haer, p. 62. Their source is the autobiography of Sven

    Blindheim: Offiser i krig ogfred (Officer in war and peace).

36. 36  Riste, Norwegian Intelligence Service, p. 33.

37. 37  International news service Associated Press, November 14, 1990. Several texts in

    newspapers, journals and books on the Gladio (re)discoveries in the 1990 related the 1978 Norway revelations. Compare: British daily The Guardian, November 15, 1990. Searchlight No. 187, January 1991, p. 4. Muller, Gladio, p. 59.

38. 38  International news service Associated Press, November 14 1990.

39. 39  William Colby, Honorable Men: My life in the CIA (New York: Simon & Schuster,

    1978), pp. 82 and 83.

40. 40  Colby, Honorable Men, pp. 82 and 83.

41. 41  International news service Associated Press, November 14, 1990.

42. 42  Ibid.

43. 43  Ibid.

44. 44  Ronald Bye and Finn Sjue, Norges Hemmelige Haer - Historien om Stay Behind.

    Tiden Norsk Verlag. Oslo 1995.

45. 45  Olav Riste and Arnfinn Moland published their book 'Strengt Hemmelig: Norsk

    etterretningsteneste 1945-1970' in 1997, covering the history of the Norwegian Gladio up to 1970, a date after which relevant research data would probably have compromised still active officials. In 1999 the English translation was published by Olav Riste with Frank Cass in London under the title 'The Norwegian Intelligence Service 1945-1970', presenting arguably still the most authoritative information on the Norwegian stay-behind now available.

15 THE SECRET WAR IN GERMANY

1. 1  On the debate concerning the actors behind the fire in the Reichstag in 1933 compare Alexander Bahar and Wilfried Kugel, Der Reichstagsbrand. Wie Geschichte gemacht wird (Berlin: Quintessenz Verlag, 2000).

2. 2  Bericht der Bundesregierung iiber die Stay-Behind Organisation des Bundesnachrich- tendienstes. Four pages written by Lutz Stavenhagen, Bonn. December 3, 1990. Hereafter quoted as 'German 1990 stay-behind report'.

3. 3  French periodical Intelligence Newsletter, December 19, 1990.

4. 4  British periodical Searchlight, January 1991.

290

5 Christopher Simpson, Blowback: America's Recuitment of Nazis and its Effects on

the Cold War (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1988). Prologue. It is noteworthy that the US press followed the Justice Department cover-up strategy and reported the

phenomena as an exception. United Press International headlined for example the next day: 'BARBIE THE EXCEPTION, NOT RULE.' And ABC TV's Nightline programme featured Ryan that evening explaining that the United States had 'innocently recruited Barbie, unaware of his role in France... [and that] the Barbie case was not typical'. Ryan under questioning expanded on the theme by saying that it was 'very likely there were no other Nazi officials who were relied upon as Klaus Barbie was... [and] this closes the record' (ibid.).

6. 6  Simpson, Blowback, p. 44.

7. 7  Ibid., p. 42.

8. 8  Ibid., p. 40.

9. 9  Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Ringmasters. First of the total three Francovich Gladio

   documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 10, 1992.

10. 10  Ibid.

11. 11  British periodical Searchlight, January 1991.

12. 12  Ibid.

13. 13  Leo Muller, Gladio. Das Erbe des Kalten Krieges. Der NATO Geheimbund und sein

    deutscher Vorlaufer (Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1991), p. 72. German journalist Leo Muller has certainly offered the best description of the 1952 events in Germany in his early book on NATO's Gladio network. The quote of the testimony of Hans Otto is contained in the so-called BDJ TD report, which the government of Hesse made available to the public in the aftermath of the scandal.

14. 14  Dieter von Glahn, Patriot und Partisan fur Freiheit und Einheit (Tubingen: Grabert, 1994), p. 58.

15. 15  Other army camps such as the training centre of the German parachute units near Altenstadt in Bavaria also cooperated closely with the German stay-behind units. Compare Erich Schmidt Eenboom, Die 'Graue' und die 'Rote' Hand. Geheimdienste in Altenstadt, 1990s. Unpublished.

16. 16  Muller: Gladio, p. 123.

17. 17  Ibid., p. 124, quoting the BDJ-TD report.

18. 18  Ibid., quoting the BDJ-TD report.

19. 19  Ibid., p. 130, quoting the BDJ-TD report.

20. 20  Ibid., p. 128, quoting the BDJ-TD report.

21. 21  Ibid., pp. 129 and 130, quoting the BDJ-TD report.

22. 22  Ibid., p. 133.

23. 23  Simpson, Blowback, p. 181. And Jens Mecklenburg (ed.), Gladio: Die geheime Terror-

    organisation der Nato (Berlin: Elefanten Press, 1997), p. 74. Mecklenburg ranged among the few who in the second half of the 1990s realised the far-reaching implications of the Gladio phenomenon and published a set of essays on the stay-behind armies in several countries in Western Europe.

24. 24  Muller: Gladio, p. 94, quoting the BDJ-TD report.

25. 25  Ibid., p. 107, quoting the BDJ-TD report.

26. 26  Ibid., pp. 136 and 143.

27. 27  William Blum, Killing Hope. US Military and CIA interventions since World War II

    (Maine: Common Courage Press, 1995), p. 64. Blum in his detailed research on the CIA noted correctly that 'this operation in Germany... was part of a much wider network - called "Operation Gladio" - created by the CIA and other European intelligence services, with similar secret armies all over Western Europe'.

28. 28  Speech of Zinn in front of the Landtag in Hesse on October 8, 1952. Reprinted in Muller, Gladio, pp. 146-152.

29 Quoted in Glahn, Patriot, p. 67. TD member Glahn notes that this US declaration was

'highly unsatisfactory with respect to the TD'.

30. 30  Entitled 'Der Technische Dienst des Bundes Deutscher Jugend' (The TD of the BDJ),

    the investigative report presented vy the Interior Minister of Hesse in 1953 was three-volume long. It consisted of an extensive report of 121 pages (volume one), with two appendices, one of 200 pages containing documents and personalia, another of 300 pages containing copies of letters, lists, reports and decisions (volumes two and three). Without wanting to slight the Belgium, Italian and Swiss stay-behind investigative reports of the 1990s, it can be said that this BDJ-TD report is maybe the only adequate investigation that followed the discovery of a Gladio stay-behind network ever.

31. 31  Allan Francovich, Gladio: The Ringmasters. First of the total three Francovich Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 10, 1992.

32. 32  Austrian political magazine Zoom, Nr. 4/5, 1996: Es muss nicht immer Gladio sein. Attentate, Waffenlager, Erinnerungslucken, p. 97. Also Klaus Harbart: Gladio - ein Schwert in rechter Hand, In: Der Rechte Rand, Nr. 10, January 1991, p. 4.

33. 33  Glahn: Patriot, pp. 41-42.

34. 34  Ibid., pp. 43-47.

35. 35  Simpson, Blowback, p. 260.

36. 36  No author specified, Schnuffler ohne Nase. Die Pannen und Pleiten des Bundesnach-

    richtendienstes in Pullach. In: German weekly news magazine Der Spiegel, Nr. 17, 1995.

37. 37  German 1990 stay-behind report.

38. 38  Miiller, Gladio, p. 109.

39. 39  Glahn, Patriot, p. 48.

40. 40  Ibid., p. 74.

41. 41  German 1990 stay-behind report.

42. 42  Ibid.

43. 43  Ibid.

44. 44  Ibid.

45. 45  Mecklenbrug, Gladio, p. 64.

46. 46  British periodical The Economist, October 27, 1990.

47. 47  No author specified, Schniiffler ohne Nase. Die Pannen und Pleiten des Bundesnach-

    richtendienstes in Pullach. In: German weekly newsmagazine Der Spiegel, Nr. 17, 1995.

48. 48  Miiller, Gladio, p. 20. And Erich Schmidt Eenboom, Schniiffler ohne Nase. Der BND.

    Die unheimliche Macht im Staate (Dusseldorf: Econ Verlag, 1993), p. 376.

49. 49  British daily The Observer, December 16, 1990.

50. 50  MfS Hauptabteilung HI. Report of General Major Mannchen to Genosse Generalleutnant

    Neiber, Berlin, August 3, 1984. Declassified.

51. 51  MfS Hauptabteilung III. Report of General Major Mannchen to Genosse Generalleutnant

    Neiber, Berlin, November 6, 1984. Declassified.

52. 52  MfS Streng Vertraulich. Information G/02069/13/02/84. Relevante Funkverbindungen

    von Sonderagenten und der Partnerdienste des BND sowie der NATO Geheimdienste.

    Declassified.

53. 53  MfS Hauptabteilung III. Schnellautomatische Funksendungen im Funknetz der

    Ueberrollagenten des BND mit einer neuen Uebertragungsapparatur. Berlin. May 22,

    1984. Declassified.

54. 54  MfS Hauptabteilung III. Gegenwartiger Stand bei der Bearbeitung des

    Funkverbindungssystems des BND zu Ueberrollagenten. Berlin. July 5, 1985. Declassified.

55. 55  German 1990 stay-behind report.

56. 56  Anonymous. Austrian periodical Oesterreichische Militarische Zeitschrift, Heft 2,

    1991, p. 123.

57. 57  JonathanKwitny,TheCIA'sSecretArmiesinEurope.In:TheNation,April6,1992,p.446.

58. 58  Mecklenburg, Gladio, p. 78.

292

59 Klaus Harbart, Gladio - ein Schwer in rechter Hand. In: Der Rechte Rand, Nr. 10,

January 1991, p. 5.

60 German daily Sueddeutsche Zeitung, September 27, 1996.
61 Mecklenburg, Gladio, p. 82.
62 Ibid.
63 Transcripts of the German parliament. Deutscher Bundestag. 66. Sitzung, Bonn.

November 25, 1981.

64. 64  QuotedinMecklenburg:Gladio,p.79.

65. 65  Klaus Harbart, Gladio - ein Schwert in rechter Hand. In: Der Rechte Rand, Nr. 10,

    January 1991, p. 5.

66. 66  Ibid.

67. 67  Ibid., p. 6.

68. 68  Mecklenburg, Gladio, p. 83.

69. 69  Presse- und Informationsamt der Bundesregierung. Pressemitteilung Nr. 455/90, durch

    Hans Klein, November 14, 1990. See also Muller, Gladio, p. 30.

70. 70  Quoted in Muller, Gladio, p. 14.

71. 71  No author specified, Das blutige Schwert der CIA. Nachrichten aus dem Kalten Krieg:

    In ganz Europa gibt es geheime NATO Kommandos, die dent Feind aus dent Osten widerstehen sollen. Kanzler, Verteidigungsminister und Bundeswehrgenerale wussten angeblich von nichts. Die Spuren fuhren nach Pullach, zur 'stay-behind organisation' des Bundesnachrichtendienstes. In: German weekly news magazine Der Spiegel, November 19, 1990.

72. 72  No author specified, Das blutige Schwert der CIA. Nachrichten aus dent Kalten Krieg: In ganz Europa gibt es geheime NATO Konvnandos, die dent Feind aus dem Osten widerstehen sollen. Kanzler, Verteidigungsminister und Bundeswehrgenerale wussten angeblich von nichts. Die Spuren fiihren nach Pullach, zur 'stay-behind organisation' des Bundesnach- richtendienstes. In: German weekly news magazine Der Spiegel, November 19,1990.

73. 73  Mecklenburg, Gladio, p. 48.

74. 74  Kleine Anfrage der Abgeordneten Such, Frau Birthler, Hoss, Frau Dr Vollmer und der

    Fraktion DIE GRUENEN. Tatigkeit eines NATO-Geheimdienstes auch in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland? Drucksache 11/8452. Inklusive Antworten von Dr Lutz G. Stavenhagen, MdB, Staatsminister beim Bundeskanzler, Beauftragter fur die Nachrichtendienste. Bonn, November 30, 1990.

75. 75  German 1990 stay-behind report.

76. 76  Austrian political magazine Zoom, Nr. 4/5, 1996: Es muss nicht immer Gladio sein.

    Attentate, Waffenlager, Erinnerungslucken, p. 110. And Reuters, August 17, 1995.

77. 77  Muller, Gladio, p. 19.

78. 78  Ulrich Stoll, Gladio: Spate Spuren einer NATO-Geheimarmee. In: Thomas Leif (ed.),

    Mehr Leidenschaft Recherche. Skandal-geschichten und Enthullungsberichte. Ein Handbuch zur Recherche und Informationsbeschaffung (Wiesbaden: Westdeutscher Verlag, 2003), p. 184.

16 THE SECRET WAR IN GREECE

1. 1  Mackenzie, W. J. M., History of the Special Operations Executive. Britain and the resistance in Europe (London: British Cabinet Office, 1948), p. 703. Unpublished original of the Public Records Office London, publication with Frank Cass forth- coming.

2. 2  Mackenzie, Special Operations Executive, pp. 722-723.

3. 3  British Guardian journalist Peter Murtagh has written a passionate account of the

   Anglo-Saxon betrayal of the Greek resistance and the crippling of the Greek democracy during the Cold War. Based on newly released documents and interviews with several

293

US and British diplomats and CIA employees his books - nomen est nomen - is entitled:

The Rape of Greece. The King, the Colonels, and the Resistance (London: Simon & Schuster, 1994), p. 29.

4. 4  No author specified, Spinne unterm Schafsfell. In Sudeuropa war die Guerillatruppe besonders aktiv - auch bei den Militarputschen in Griechenland und der Turkei? In: German news magazine Der Spiegel, Nr. 48, November 26, 1990. And Leo Muller, Gladio. Das Erbe des Kalten Krieges. Der NATO Geheimbund und sein deutscher Vorlaufer (Hamburg: Rowohlt, 1991), p. 55.

5. 5  Murtagh, Rape, p. 30.

6. 6  Ibid., p. 24. Compare also the 'Concise History of Greece' (Cambridge University

   Press, 1992), written by Professor Richard Clogg, which claims that 'Ill disciplined police fired on the demonstration in Constitution Square in the centre of the city, leaving some fifteen dead', p. 137.

7. 7  William Blum, Killing Hope: US Military and CIA interventions since World War II (Maine: Common Courage Press, 1995), p. 36.

8. 8  Murtagh, Rape, p. 39.

9. 9  Blum, Killing Hope, p. 38.

10. 10  Muller, Gladio, p. 55. And Jens Mecklenburg (ed.), Gladio: Die geheime Terrororganisation der Nato (Berlin: Elefanten Press, 1997), p. 19.

11. 11  Jacques Baud, Encyclopedic du renseignement et des services secrets (Paris: Lavauzelle, 1997), p. 546.

12. 12  Murtagh, Rape, p. 41.

13. 13  Philip Agee and Louis Wolf, Dirty Work: The CIA in Western Europe (Secaucus: Lyle

    Stuart Inc., 1978), p. 154.

14. 14  Agee, Dirty Work, pp. 155 and 156.

15. 15  Ibid.

16. 16  Murtagh, Rape, p. 42.

17. 17  Austrian political magazine Zoom, Nr. 4/5, 1996, Es muss nicht immer Gladio sein.

    Attentate, Waffenlager, Erinnerungslucken, p. 73.

18. 18  Murtagh, Rape, p. 43.

19. 19  Ibid., p. 44.

20. 20  Ibid., p. 71.

21. 21  Blum, Killing Hope, p. 216.

22. 22  No author specified, Spinne unterm Schafsfell. In Sudeuropa war die Guerillatruppe

    besonders aktiv - auch bei den Militarputschen in Griechenland und der Turkei?

    In: German news magazine Der Spiegel, Nr. 48, November 26, 1990.

23. 23  Murtagh, Rape, p. 90.

24. 24  Ibid.

25. 25  Ibid., p. 102.

26. 26  Quoted in Blum, Killing Hope, p. 217.

27. 27  Ibid., p. 218.

28. 28  Murtagh, Rape, p. 114.

29. 29  Ibid., p. 118

30. 30  Christopher Simpson, Blowback: America's Recruitment of Nazis and its Effects on the

    Cold War (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1988), p. 81.

31. 31  Agee, Dirty Work, p. 154.

32. 32  Bernard Cook, The Mobilisation of the Internal Cold War in Italy. In: History of European

    Ideas. Vol. 19, 1994, p. 116. Cook puts 'a carbon copy of Gladio' in quotation marks because he quotes Paul Grinsborg, A History of Contemporary Italy: Society and Politics, 1943-1988 (New York: Penguin, 1990), p. 277.

33. 33  Richard Collin, The De Lorenzo Gambit: The Italian Coup Manque of 1964 (Beverly Hills: Sage, 1976), p. 40.

294

34 See Amnesty International, Torture in Greece: The First Toturer's Trial in 1975. London

1977. Passim. Also Blum, Killing Hope, pp. 218-220 and Murtagh, Rape. pp. 1-9.

35  Murtagh,Rape,p.6. 36  Jean-Francois Brozzu-Gentile, L' affaire Gladio (Paris: Editions Albin Michel, 1994), pp. 41, 42 and 90. Allegedly the British daily The Observer printed the May 15, 1969 cable of the Greek colonels to their Italian friends in one of their editions at the time. Yet Gentile does not specify in which one. The journey of Italian fascists with Gladio links to the Greek colonels is also related in the Italian Parliamentary Report on Gladio and the Massacres: Senato della Repubblica. Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sul terrorismo in Italia e sulle cause della mancata individuazione del responsabiliy delle stragi: Il terrorismo, le stragi ed il contesto storico politico. Redatta dal presidente della Commissione, Senatore Giovanni Pellegrino. Roma 1995, p. 206. 37  Gentile, Gladio, p. 137. 38  John Palmer, Undercover NATO Group 'may have had terror links'. In: British daily The Guardian, November 10, 1990. 39  International news service Associated Press, November 14, 1990. 40  No author specified, Spinne unterm Schafsfell. In Sudeuropa war die Guerillatruppe besonders aktiv - auch bei den Militdrputschen in Griechenland und der Turkei? In: German news magazine Der Spiegel, Nr. 48, November 26, 1990. 17 THE SECRET WAR IN TURKEY

1  Edward Herman and Frank Brodhead, The Rise and Fall of the Bulgarian Connection (New York: Sheridan Square Publications, 1986), p. 45. In their excellent study of the CIA's propaganda success to wrongly blame the 1981 Papal shooting on the KGB Herman and Brodhead offer a very valuable analysis of the Grey Wolves and their ideological background. 2  Ibid., Bulgarian Connection, p. 45. 3  In 1992 Alparsan Turks visited his long lost Turkish brothers in Azerbaijan, Turkey's neighbour state to the East which had become newly independent after the fall of the dreaded Soviet Empire. Turks received a hero's welcome in Baku. He endorsed the candidacy of Grey Wolf sympathiser Abulfex Elcibey, who was subsequently elected president of Azerbaijan, and appointed a close Grey Wolf ally as his Interior Minister. 4  The Jupiter missiles in Turkey had become technically obsolete and were replaced with mobile Polaris submarines carrying nuclear missiles. Compare Daniele Ganser, Reckless Gamble. The Sabotage of the United Nations in the Cuban conflict and the missile crisis of 1962 (New Orleans: University Press of the South, 2000), p. 138. 5  Fikret Asian and Kemal Bozay, Graue Wolfe heulen wieder. Turkische Faschisten und ihre Vernetzung in der BRD (Munster: Unrast Verlag, 1997), p. 69. Due to the fact that Germany is host of the largest exile community of Turks and Kurds, valuable literature on the secret war in Turkey has been published in German. Asian and Bozay with their book offer most probably one of the finest recent books in a foreign language on the Grey Wolves and Turkish Fascism. The book also contains an essay by Serdar Celik and one by Talat Turhan. 6  Selahattin Celik, Turkische Konterguerilla. Die Todesmaschinerie (Koln: Mesopotamien Verlag, 1999), p. 44. Celik is the leading Turkish scholar on the Turkish Gladio Counter- Guerrilla next to officer Talat Turhan. His original work appeared in 1995 in Turkish under the title: Olum Makinasi Turk Kontrgerillasi. Celik, who is a Kurd, studied at Ankara University and worked as a journalist and author. His sister and his brother and three of his cousins were killed by the Counter-Guerrilla and he himself is in danger. Although scrupulous on the facts he admits that the massacres in his family have led to a certain bias and a critical approach towards the Turkish stay behind: 'I have not written this work as an independent neutral person. I am biased. I have written this book as a

295

son of the Kurdish people, which fights for its survival against the war machinery of

the Turkish regime and lights for its right to live in peace... how can we grasp and communicate the crime of the systematic destruction of the Kurdish intellectuals? A crime which to this degree next to Kurdistan has only t a k e n place in Chile' (Turkische Konterguerilla, p. 354). Under his pen name Serdar Celik he also published a ten-page summary of his book in English on the Internet entitled: Turkey's Killing Machine: The Contra Guerrilla Force (http://www.ozgurluk.org/mhp/0061.html). I will quote hereafter both from his book (Turkische Konterguerilla) and his Internet article (Turkey's Killing Machine).

7 No author specified, The Origins of 'Gladio' in Turkey. In: French periodical Intelli- gence Newsletter. Le Monde du Renseignement, December 19, 1990.

8 Celik, Die Todesmaschinerie, p. 50.
9 Turkish newspaper Cumhuriyet, November 17, 1990.

10. 10  Celik, Tiirkische Konterguerilla, p. 44. The same information is also found in the Austrian political magazine Zoom, Nr. 4/5, 1996: Es muss nicht immer Gladio sein. Attentate, Waffenlager, Erinnerungslucken, pp. 74-75. Compare also the valuable contribution by Olaf Goebel, Gladio in der Turkei. In: Jens Mecklenburg, Gladio. Die geheime Terrororganisation der NATO, (1997), pp. 122-130. Goebel was the first researcher to include a chapter on Turkey in a book on Gladio. Compare also: No author specified, Spinne unterm Schafsfell. In Sudeuropa war die Guerillatruppe besonders aktiv - auch bei den Militarputschen in Griechenland und der Turkei? In: German news magazine Der Spiegel, Nr. 48, November 26, 1990.

11. 11  Celik, Turkische Konterguerilla, p. 45.

12. 12  Ibid., Turkey's Killing Machine.

13. 13  Asian and Bozay, Graue Wolfe, p. 55.

14. 14  Ibid.

15. 15  Celik, Turkische Konterguerilla, p. 51.

16. 16  Asian and Bozay, Graue Wolfe, p. 59.

17. 17  Ibid., p. 50.

18. 18  Leo Muller, Gladio. Das Erbe des Kalten Krieges. Der NATO Geheimbund und sein

    deutscher Vorldufer (1991), p. 57; also Olaf Goebel in Jens Mecklenburg, Gladio,

    p. 128. Also Celik, Tiirkische Konterguerilla, p. 151.

19. 19  All three books are in Turkish and no translations seem available as of now. (1) Talat

    Turhan, Doruk Operasyonu. Publisher: Cagloglu, Istanbul 1989. In this book Turhan deals on 170 pages with the Turkish secret service MIT. (2) Talat Turhan, Ozel Savas, Teror ve Kontrgerilla. Publisher: Kadkoy, Istanbul 1992. In this book Turhan deals specifically with the Counter-Guerrilla, the Special Warfare Department (Ozel Harp Dairesi), the CIA, the MIT and terrorism. (3) Talat Turhan, Kontrgerilla cumhuriyeti: acklamalar, belgeler, gercekler. Publisher: Tumzamanlaryaynclk, Istanbul 1993. In this book Turhan deals again with the Counter-Guerrilla. Another valuable book in Turkish on the Counter-Guerrilla is the one written by journalist Semih Hicyilmaz, Susurluk ve Kontrgerilla gercegi, published by Evrensel Basim Yayin, Istanbul 1997.

20. 20  A German essay by Talat Turhan entitled Die Konterguerilla Republik is contained in Asian and Bozay, Graue Wolfe, pp. 101-111.

21. 21  Asian and Bozay, Graue Wolfe, p. 106.

22. 22  Quoted in Celik, Turkische Konterguerilla, p. 151.

23. 23  Essay of Talat Turhan, Die Konterguerilla Republik. In: Asian and Bozay, Graue

    Wolfe, pp. 102 and 103.

24. 24  Celik, Turkey's Killing Machine. Celik is quoting from Directive ST 31/15 for Opera-

    tions Against Irregular Forces.

25. 25  Regine Igel, Andreotti. Politik zwischen Geheimdienst und Mafia (Munchen: Herbig

    Verlag 1997), p. 354.

296

26 Herman Brodhead, Bulgarian Connection, p. 61.

27. 27  Igel, Andreotti, p. 354.

28. 28  QuotedinCelik,TurkischeKonterguerilla,p.147.

29. 29  Ibid., p. 145.

30. 30  The quotes are from the Turkish left-wing political magazine Kurtulus, Nr. 99,

    September 19, 1998. Kurtulus (Liberation) was first published in 1971 after the military coup and has continued in provide critical information on the secret war in Turkey. It was banned. Its journalists have been subject to threat, arrests and torture. Its premises had been subject to bombings and the press that prints Kurtulus had been under pressure to stop doing business with Kurtulus. Issues of Kurtulus have also appeared on the Internet.

31. 31  Turkish magazine Kurtulus, quoting Mehmet Eymur, Analiz, pp. 90-96.

32. 32  Turkish magazine Kurtulus Nr. 99, September 19, 1998.

33. 33  Lucy Komisar, Turkey's Terrorists: A CIA Legacy Lives On. In: The Progressive,

    April 1997.

34. 34  Celik, Turkische Konterguerilla, p. 46.

35. 35  Ibid., p. 45.

36. 36  Quoted by Talat Turhan in Asian and Bozay, Graue Wolfe, p. 110.

37. 37  The Guardian, November 25, 1998. SOA graduates include former Panamanian

    strongman Manuel Noriega, former Argentine dictator Leopoldo Galtieri, Haitian coup leader Raoul Cedras, the late Salvadoran death squad organizer Robert D'Aubuisson and Gen. Hector Gramajo, reputed architect of the genocidal 'scorched earth' policy in Guatemala. One of every seven members of the command staff Pinochet's dreaded Chilean torture and intelligence agency DINA was a SOA graduate. Following strong public protests in the 1990s the name of SOA was changed to 'Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation'.

38. 38  Celik, Turkey's Killing Machine.

39. 39  The number 30 indicates that the document is classified as a document of the US military

    secret service DIA. DIA is subject to the command of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff with headquarters in the Pentagon in Washington. DIA operates in close coordination with the CIA and with a yearly budget of around $4,500,000,000 ranges among the biggest US secret services. Compare Baud, Jacques, Encyclopedic du renseignement et des services secrets (Paris: Lavauzelle, 1997), p. 174.

40. 40  Igel, Andreotti, pp. 356-357.

41. 41  Ibid., p. 346.

42. 42  Ibid., p. 347.

43. 43  Upon the fall of the dictatorship in 1976 the Spanish newspaper Triunfo published

    excerpts despite heavy pressures to prevent the publication, whereupon on October 27, 1978 excerpts of FM 30-31 also appeared in the Italian political magazine L'Europeo. When the Italian monthly Controinformazione printed the US terror manual the issues were confiscated. After, in 1981, the cover of the secret anti- Communist P2 Freemason lodge of Licio Gelli was discovered FM 30-31 surfaced once again and the Italian parliamentary investigation into P2 courageously published it in its parliamentary report in 1987 but three years before the discovery of the secret Gladio armies. Regine Igel offers in her German translation the full text of FM 30-31B in her book on Gulio Andreotti and the US subversion of Italy (Igel, Andreotti, Appendix, pp. 345-358). Igel's source is the original English version of the FM 30-31B as contained in the collected documents of the Italian Parliamentary Commission of Inquiry into the US-linked P2: Commissione parlamentare d'inchiesta sulla loggia massonica P2. Allegati alla Relazione Doc. XXIII, n. 2-quater/7/l Serie II, Vol. VII, Tomo I, Roma 1987, pp. 287-298. The document FM 30-31B is dated March 18, 1970, Headquarters of the US Army, Washington DC, and signed by General of the US Army W. C. Westmoreland.

297

44 AllanFrancovich,Gladio:TheFootSoldiers.ThirdofthetotalthreeFrancovich

Gladio documentaries, broadcasted on BBC2 on June 24, 1992.

45. 45  British political magazine Searchlight, No 47, May 1979, p. 6. Quoted in Herman and Brodhead, Bulgarian Connection, p. 50.

46. 46  Celik, Turkische Konterguerilla, pp. 51 and 53. After his retirement in 1974 Muhsin Batur became a member of parliament granting him immunity from prosecution.

47. 47  Turkish daily Milliyet, March 23, 1976. Quoted in Kurtulus, September 19,1998.

48. 48  Turhan in Asian and Bozay, Graue Wolfe, p. 109.

49. 49  Komisar, A CIA Legacy.

50. 50  Ibid.

51. 51  TurkishmagazineKurtulusNr.99,September19,1998.

52. 52  Turkish left-wing newspaper Devrimci Sol (Revolutionary Left), May 1998.

53. 53  Celik, Tiirkische Konterguerilla, p. 41 and Komisar, A CIA Legacy.

54. 54  Komisar, A CIA Legacy.

55. 55  Turkishextremeleft-wingmagazine,DevrimciSol(RevolutionaryLeft),May1998.

56. 56  Ibid.

57. 57  Celik in his essay in Asian and Bozay, Graue Wolfe, explains: 'Now the public has

    come to know that Catli was a top senior official of the Turkish Gladio section and that probably he was also connected to the international Gladio network. In 1992 he could pass customs unhindered in Miami together with Delle Chiaie and enter the United States' (ibid., p. 134). Celik most probably got the date wrong, not 1992 but 1982.

58. 58  Prominent among the books on the Turkish Gladio is the biography on terrorist Catli by the academic Dogan Yurdakul and the journalist Soner Yalcin. The nickname of Catli was 'Reis', Turkish for Chief: Reis. Gladio nun Turk Tetikcisi (Ankara: Oteki Yay Nevi, 1997). After Catli's death even his daughter, Gokcen Catli, announced that she was going to write a biography about her father, Gladio, Catli's work with the CIA, and 'the important events taking place behind the scenes'.

59. 59  Quoted in the Berlin weekly Jungle World, January 20, 1999. Kirici was again arrested on January 10, 1999 in Istanbul. His memoirs appeared in May 1998.

60. 60  Turkish daily Yeniyuzyil, December 18, 1996.

61. 61  Komisar, A CIA Legacy.

62. 62  The best study in this context is certainly the book of Herman and Brodhead, Bulgarian

    Connection. Catli in his 1985 testimony in Rome revealed that he had been approached by the West German secret service BND who had promised him a large sum of money if he implicated the Bulgarian secret service and the KGB as the sponsor's of the Grey Wolves' attack on the Pope. In 1990, ex-CIA analyst Melvin Goodman admitted to the US Senate Intelligence Committee that 'The CIA had no evidence linking the KGB to the plot', and that only pressure from CIA higher-ups had made them skew their reports to lend credence to the theory that the Soviets were behind the plot to kill the Pope. Herman and Brodhead in their investigation discovered the Turkish Gladio when they noted: 'The most likely avenue linking the CIA to the Turkish Right runs through Turkey's "Counter-Guerrilla", a branch of the Turkish General Staffs Department of Special Warfare... it was headquartered in the same Ankara building that housed the US military mission, and... the training of officers assigned to this unit "begins in the US and then continues inside Turkey under the direction of CIA officers and military advisers'" (ibid., p. 61). Their source for this early understanding of the Turkish Gladio is the very good book by Jurgen Roth and Kamil Taylan, Die Turkei - Republik unter Wolfen (Bornheim: Lamur Verlag, 1981). See also Martin Lee, On the Trail of Turkey's Grey Wolves. Six-page essay available on the Internet: http://www.ozgurluk.org/mhp/ story33.html.

63. 63  Komisar, A CIA Legacy. In the late 1990s Bulent Ecevit under President Suleyman Demirel again became Prime Minister, already for the third time.

298

64 Jens Mecklenburg (ed.), Gladio: Die geheime Terrororganisation der Nato (Berlin:

Elefanten Press, 1997), p. 128.

65. 65  Turkish magazine Kurtulus Nr. 99, September 19, 1998. Quoting Gunes, September 3, 1987.

66. 66  German news magazine Der Spiegel: Spinne unterm Schafsfell: In Sudeuropa war die Guerrilla truppe besonders aktiv - auch bei den Militarputschen in Griechenland und der Turkei?, November 26, 1990, pp. 173-177.

67. 67  Celik, Turkey's Killing Machine, quoting Cuneyit Arcayurek, Coups and the Secret Services, p. 190.

68. 68  Kurkcu Ertugrul, Turkey: Trapped in a web of covert killers. In: Covert Action Quarterly Nr. 61, Summer 1997. Also online on the Internet: http://caq.com/CAQ/caq61/CAQ61turkey. html. The source of Ertugrul is Mehmet Ali Birand, 12 Eylul Saat 04:00 [September 12, 1980, 12:04] (Istanbul: Miiliyet Publishers, 1985), p. 1.

69. 69  Celik, Turkische Konterguerilla, p. 58.

70. 70  Turkish magazine Kurtulus Nr. 99, September 19, 1998, quoting Turkish daily

    Cumhuriyet, July 21, 1988.

71. 71  Celik, Turkische Konterguerilla, p. 53.

72. 72  German Newspaper Zeitung am Sonntag, September 14, 1980. Quoted in Asian and

    Bozay, Graue Wolfe, p. 78.

73. 73  Herman and Brodhead, Bulgarian Connection, p. 50.

74. 74  Ibid.

75. 75  Asian and Bozay, Graue Wolfe, pp. 74 and 75.

76. 76  Ibrahim Ciftci in an interview with the Turkish daily Miiliyet, October 13, 1996.

77. 77  Quoted by Vera Beaudin Saeedpour, editor of Kurdish Life and International Journal

    of Kurdish Studies. URL: http://www.lbbs.org/Kurdish.htm.

78. 78  Mecklenburg, Gladio, p. 125.

79. 79  Celik, Turkey's Killing Machine. His source is an interview with the President of the

    Turkish General Staff Dogan Gures in Turkish daily Miiliyet 5/6 September 1992.

80. 80  Turkish daily Miiliyet, November 13,1990.

81. 81  Celik, Turkische Konterguerilla, p. 40.

82. 82  Ibid.

83. 83  Asian and Bozay, Graue Wolfe, p. 15.

84. 84  Swiss daily Neue Zurcher Zeitung, December 5, 1990.

85. 85  Komisar, A CIA Legacy.

86. 86  Ibid.

87. 87  Ibid.

88. 88  Ibid.

89. 89  Ibid.

90. 90  Asian and Bozay, Graue Wolfe, p. 139.

91. 91  Kelly Couturier, Security Forces Allegedly Involved in Turkish Criminal Gang. US

    daily Washington Post, November 27, 1996.

92. 92  Stephen Kinzer, Scandal links Turkish Aides to deaths, drugs and terror. US daily

    New York Times, December 10, 1996.

93. 93  Turkish daily Sabah, December 12, 1996.

94. 94  US daily New York Times, December 10, 1996.

95. 95  Turkish magazine Kurtulus, September 19, 1998.

96. 96  Turkish daily Radikal, January 10, 1997.

97. 97  Kurkcu Ertugrul, Turkey: Trapped in a web of covert killers. In: Covert Action Quarterly

    Nr. 61, Summer 1997.

98. 98  Hugh Pope, Turkey Promoted Death Squads and Drug Trafficking. Prime Minister's

    Probe of 1996 Car Crash Scandal Excoriates Rival Mrs. Ciller. In: US periodical Wall

299

Street Journal, January 26, 1998. The article fails to address both the US role in Turkey's

Death Squads and the Gl a d i o scandal. 99 Swiss daily Neue Zurcher Zeitung, May 13, 1998. And Eine Aktion der Koterguerilla. Der stellvertretende IHD Vorsitzende Reehtsanwalt Osman Baydemir zum Anschlag auf Akin Birdal. URL: www.nadir.org/nadit/periodika/kurdistan_report/9891/07.html. 100 Martin Lee, On the Trail of Turkey's Grey Wolves. Six-page essay available on the Internet: http://www.ozgurluk.org/mhp/story33.html. US researcher Lee researched extensively on Neofascism and published a book on the topic: The Beast Reawakens (Boston: Little Brown, 1997).

CONCLUSION

1. 1  International news service Reuters Western Europe, November 15,1990.

2. 2  Juan Arias, El laberinto ltaliano. Commocion por el descubrimiento de un 'ejercito paralelo' de anticomunistas pagado por la CIA. In: Spanish daily El Pais, November 11,

   1990.

3. 3  After the attacks of September 11 2001 US lawyer Stanley Hilton had risen the

   far-reaching claim that the administration of President George Bush had deliberately allowed Al Qaida terrorists to attack the United States in order to strike fear to the bones of the entire population of the United States, limit civil liberties, and convince the country of the very real danger of Islamic terrorism and the world community of the necessity of 'preventive wars'. This so-called LIHOP thesis (let it happen on pur- pose) has ever since challenged the dominant 'SURPRISE' thesis and even led to legal action. In June 2002 San Francisco-based lawyer Hilton in the name of families of the victims of 9/11 filed a seven billion dollar suit and declared that only legal instruments and the rule of law will be able to penetrate the secret warfare operations of the state. Compare Nafeez M. Ahmed, Geheimsache 9/11. Hintergrunde uber den 11. September und die Logik amerikanischer Machtpolitik (Munchen: Riemann Verlag, 2002), p. 229. Translation of the English Original: The War on Freedom (Joshua Tree: Tree of Life Publications, 2002). Ahmed, with his detailed research, puts forward the thesis that the Bush administration deliberately allowed the 9/11 attacks to take place in order to unite the country for preemptive wars abroad.

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