Salicylates and Pandemic Influenza Mortality, 1918–1919 Pharmacology, Pathology, and Historic Evidence
+ Author Affiliations
- Reprints or correspondence: Dr Karen M. Starko, 1515 Floribunda Ave, Burlingame, CA 94010 (karenstarko@gmail.com).
Abstract
The high case-fatality rate—especially
among young adults—during the 1918–1919 influenza pandemic is
incompletely understood.
Although late deaths showed bacterial pneumonia,
early deaths exhibited extremely “wet,” sometimes hemorrhagic lungs. The
hypothesis presented herein is that aspirin
contributed to the incidence and severity of viral pathology, bacterial
infection,
and death, because physicians of the day were
unaware that the regimens (8.0–31.2 g per day) produce levels associated
with
hyperventilation and pulmonary edema in 33% and 3%
of recipients, respectively. Recently, pulmonary edema was found at
autopsy
in 46% of 26 salicylate-intoxicated adults.
Experimentally, salicylates increase lung fluid and protein levels and
impair
mucociliary clearance. In 1918, the US Surgeon
General, the US Navy, and the Journal of the American Medical Association recommended use of aspirin just before
the October death spike. If these recommendations were followed, and if
pulmonary edema occurred in 3% of persons, a significant
proportion of the deaths may be attributable to
aspirin.
In February 1919…Edward's fever kept getting higher and higher…aspirin…was given to him by the 1/2-handful over and over…Edward
sweated through his mattress…Dr.…could not save his patient.
—Clella B. Gregory, Pandemic Influenza Storybook, US Department of Health and Human Services [1]
The unprecedented overall mortality and the
mortality rate among young adults during the 1918–1919 influenza
pandemic are
incompletely understood. Deaths in the United States
peaked with a sudden spike in October 1918. Later, Wade Hampton Frost
[2]
studied surveys of 8 US cities and found that, for every 1000 persons
aged 25–29 years, ∼30% were infected with influenza
virus, and 1% died of pneumonia or influenza. This 3%
case-fatality rate has been called, “perhaps the most important unsolved
mystery of the pandemic” [3, p 1022].
Mortality was driven by 2 overlapping clinical-pathologic syndromes: an early, severe acute respiratory distress (ARDS)-like
condition, which was estimated to have caused 10%-15% of deaths (sequential autopsy series are lacking) [3)]; and a subsequent, aggressive bacterial pneumonia “superinfection,” which was pres-ent in the majority of deaths [4, 5].
Factors that contributed to the severity of
illness and death (eg, viral pathogenicity, bacterial colonization,
immune response,
smoking, preexisting conditions, and treatment) remain
to be elucidated. Of most interest are those amenable to intervention,
because fear of another 1918-like influenza pandemic
drives pandemic planning today.
Recent studies suggest enhanced pathogenicity
of certain influenza viruses as well as abnormal immune host responses.
The
1918 influenza H1N1 virus, in contrast to a
conventional human H1N1 influenza virus (A/Kawasaki/173/01), infected
the lower
respiratory tract, produced acute respiratory
distress, and was associated with a dysregulated antiviral response in a
cynomologous
macaque model [6]. Also, the 1918 viral polymerase complex (PA, PB1, and PB2) promoted growth of the 1918 virus in the lower respiratory tract
of ferrets [7]. Similarly, 2003 human H5N1 isolates, like 1997 human H5N1 isolates, induced overproduction of proinflammatory cytokines
in human macrophages in vitro [8].
However, it is unlikely that the virus and immune responses alone were responsible for the 1918 deaths. As recently reviewed
by Brundage and Shanks [4],
most persons had self-limited disease with case-fatality rates of
<2%, and mortality and case-fatality rates differed widely
among populations. During the fall of 1918, death and
influenza case-fatality rates ranged from 0.58% to 3.3% and 2.1% to
10%, respectively, in the 12 US Army camps with
>10,000 cases of influenza or pneumonia each [9, 10]. Frost [2]
noted that the wide variation in mortality rates between cities, some
of which were close together, was not explained by
climate, population density, preventive measures, or
other environmental characteristics. These observations suggest the
importance
of factors related to location rather than the virus
itself. Likewise, the unusual mortality rate among young adults remains
unexplained. Salicylate has been suggested [3, 11, 12], and increased mortality rates have been found in ferrets exposed to influenza, aspirin, and an arginine-deficient diet,
compared with each alone or in 2 combinations [13], yet mechanistic and epidemiologic evidence has not been fully explored.
The hypothesis presented herein is that
salicylate therapy for influenza during the 1918–1919 pandemic resulted
in toxicity
and pulmonary edema, which contributed to the
incidence and severity of early ARDS-like lungs, subsequent bacterial
infection,
and overall mortality. Pharmacokinetic data, which
were unavailable in 1918, indicate that the aspirin regimens recommended
for the “Spanish influenza” predispose to severe
pulmonary toxicity.
A confluence of events created a “perfect
storm” for widespread salicylate toxicity. The loss of Bayer's patent on
aspirin
in February 1917 allowed many manufacturers into the
lucrative aspirin market. Official recommendations for aspirin therapy
at toxic doses were preceded by ignorance of the
unusual nonlinear kinetics of salicylate (unknown until the 1960s),
which
predispose to accumulation and toxicity; tins and
bottles that contained no warnings and few instructions; and fear of
“Spanish”
influenza, an illness that had been spreading like
wildfire.
More recently, influenza deaths have been
attributed to salicylate. From the 1950s to the 1980s, thousands of
deaths among
children following influenza and other infections (eg,
Reye syndrome) were unexplained until studies identified aspirin as
the major contributor [14-16], and aspirin label warnings were followed by a disappearance of the condition [17]. Reye syndrome toxicity (vomiting, hyperventilation, delirium, and coma, with brain swelling and fat in the liver and proximal
renal tubules) develops after ∼4 days of salicylate therapy [14] with reported mean daily doses of 25 mg/kg [18]. (Adults with salicylate toxicity present mainly with abnormal consciousness and respiratory distress [19].) Also, a recent avian influenza A-associated fatality involved Reye syndrome and aspirin use [20], and several autopsies of persons who had avian influenza revealed hemorrhagic lungs, fatty liver changes, and swollen kidneys
[21] consistent with salicylate intoxication.
Four lines of evidence support the role of
salicylate intoxication in 1918 influenza mortality: pharmacokinetics,
mechanism
of action, pathology, and the spate of official
recommendations for toxic regimens of aspirin immediately before the
October
1918 death spike. (Grains of aspirin used in older
texts are converted to milligrams as follows: 1 grain equals 65 mg).
Aspirin Regimens (Dose and Schedule) Recommended in 1918 Are Now Known to Regularly Produce Toxicity
In 1977, a US Food and Drug Administration panel [22]
recommended that the maximum safe daily dose of aspirin for the general
population was 4000 mg, with a mean hourly rate
of 167 mg/h, and that “dosing regimens exceeding
either this total daily dosage or mean hourly rate provide a
significantly
greater risk without a compensating therapeutic
benefit” (p 35360). As an example of the unusual nonlinear kinetics of
salicylate,
the panel noted that simulations show that, after
increasing the dose from 2 to 4 g daily (given every 6 h), “the total
amount
of drug in the body at steady state will increase
from 1.3 grams to 5.3 grams, a 400% increase.” In 2007, an
evidence-based
consensus guideline [23]
recommended that anyone with an acute ingestion of 150 mg/kg or 6.5 g
of aspirin equivalent, whichever is lower, warrants
referral to an emergency department and recognized
that, after multiple doses, it is difficult to generalize any dose
associated
with toxicity, because lower daily doses (2–3 g for
several days) may lead to toxicity in some patients.
In the early 1900s, physicians treating
serious conditions (eg, rheumatic fever) generally “pushed” salicylate
until the appearance
of toxicity and then backed off [24].
In 1918, dosing recommendations for pandemic influenza were similar to
these high-dose, hospital-based regimens, except
that the recommendations for influenza generally
offered no instruction for dose adjustment if toxicity occurred.
French's historic 1920 report for the British Ministry of Health [25] on the pandemic states that the aspirin dose was “15 to 20 grains” (975–1300 mg). No frequency was given. One London doctor
“drenched” his patient with salicin: 20 grains (1300 mg) hourly for 12 hours nonstop [26]. Others suggested sodium salicylate, 6 grains (390 mg) over 3 hours for several days [27]. Aspirin was recommended for pulmonary edema [28]. On 26 September 1918, the US Navy recommended a cathartic and 5 grains (325 mg) of aspirin, warning against large doses
[29]. However, the Navy's Materia Medica stated that the maximum dose was 1300 mg [30]. On 5 October 1918, The Journal of the American Medical Association [31]
recommended aspirin: “The acetylsalicylic acid may be given in a dosage
of 1 gm. (15 grains) every three hours…or a smaller
dose combined with 0.1 gm. (2 grains)
acetophenetidin, until symptomatic relief is secured” (p 1137). These
recommended doses
(1000–1300 mg), with frequencies ranging from
hourly to every 3 hours, resulting in daily doses of 8–31.2 grams, are
above
the maximum safe dose defined above and would lead
to accumulation, as noted below.
Hints of unusual pharmacokinetics and
individual variation were noted before the pandemic but largely ignored.
In 1906, Langmeade
[32]
observed “great variation in the amount required” (p 1824) for toxicity
and reported a hospitalized child (receiving 325
mg every 6 hours) who, on day 4, developed
vomiting, fever, dyspnea, cyanosis, and coma and died. He recommended
caution early
in treatment so “the personal factor may be
estimated.” In 1913, Hanzlik [24]
studied records of 400 hospitalized persons treated with a common
regimen, 10–20 grains of a salicylate hourly with sodium
bicarbonate until toxicity occurred (headache,
nausea, tinnitus or deafness, delirium, or hallucinations). He found
that the
mean toxic dose of aspirin for male persons was 165
grains (10,725 mg), a probable overestimation, because sodium
bicarbonate
greatly enhances salicylate excretion. The toxic
dose of synthetic salicylate in males ranged from 1300 to 31,200 mg.
The development of tests to measure salicylate in the blood in the 1940s allowed Alvin F. Coburn [33] of the US Navy, while studying rheumatic fever, to find that a dose of 10 g daily led to levels that averaged 36 mg/dL on
day 3 in 9 adults. In 1948, Graham and Parker [34]
were among the first to correlate the blood salicylate level with
symptoms of toxicity. First, after studying 58 individuals,
they found considerable variation in the level at
which symptoms developed, such as vomiting (16.3–38.6 mg/dL),
hyperventilation
(21–44.2 mg/dL), pulmonary edema (49.4 mg/dL), and
severe dyspnea (46–53.6 mg/dL). They also studied 33 patients who
attained
levels of 35 mg/dL during the first 7 days of
therapy and found the following severe toxicities: hyperventilation (in
33%),
vomiting (in 30%), marked sweating (in 12%),
headache (in 12%) severe drowsiness (in 12%), confusion (in 6%), severe
dyspnea
(in 6%), excitement (in 6%), epistaxis (in 6%),
vertigo (in 3%), pulmonary edema (in 3%), and hemorrhage (in 3%). The
incidence
of these toxicities may be higher, because
administration was halted when hyperventilation occurred. A
retrospective study
[35]
of 56 salicylate-intoxicated adults, with intoxication defined as a
peak salicylate level ⩾30 mg/dL, found 6 patients (11%)
with noncardiogenic pulmonary edema. For adults
aged >30 years, the incidence of noncardiogenic pulmonary edema was
35%. Interestingly,
none of 55 consecutive intoxicated pediatric
patients had pulmonary edema.
In the 1960s, scientists learned why
toxicity occurs with intense aspirin therapy: salicylates have unusual
and complex pharmacokinetic
characteristics that predispose to accumulation,
rendering both dose and schedule critically important. In 1965, Levy [36] showed that, when the amount of drug in the body reaches ∼360 mg, the half-life increases as elimination changes from first
order to zero order. Later, Bardare et al [37],
who studied children, observed half-lives of ∼5 h at a dosage of ∼50
mg/kg per day (3500 mg in a 70-kg person), of ∼15
h at dosages of 75–95 mg/kg per day, and of ∼40 h
at dosages >100 mg/kg per day. Dosing at intervals of the half-life
or less
will lead to accumulation.
In addition to the saturable metabolism described by Levy and colleagues [36, 38, 39], accumulation of salicylate can occur for other reasons, including individual variation in elimination rate [38], reduced renal excretion [40], and low urine pH [41]. Higher doses, as mentioned above, slow elimination [42] and enhance the volume of distribution [43]. Acidosis [44] and hypoproteinemia [45] increase brain uptake and toxicity. The salicylate level [42] and the level at which toxicity occurs [24, 34] vary among individuals. Therefore, it is likely that severe salicylate intoxication, including pulmonary edema, developed
in some persons who followed the recommended 1918 dosing regimens.
Salicylates Cause Immediate Lung Toxicity and May Predispose to Bacterial Infection by Increasing Lung Fluid and Protein Levels and Impairing Mucociliary Clearance
The occurrence of pulmonary edema in humans with salicylate intoxication is well documented [19, 35]. Increased pulmonary vascular bed permeability to fluid and protein, decreases in arterial pO2, and increases in postmortem
extravascular lung water followed salicylate administration in sheep [46]. Salicylate also depresses the lung's mucociliary transport system [47].
The Pathology of the Early Deaths Is Consistent with Aspirin Toxicity and Virus-Induced Pathology
Autopsy reports by pathologists of the
day describe extremely wet, sometimes hemorrhagic lungs in early deaths.
On 23 September
1918 at Camp Devens in Massachusetts, 12,604
soldiers had influenza, and 727 had pneumonia; after examining the lungs
of a
dead soldier, Colonel Welch concluded, “This must
be some new kind of infection or plague” [48, p 190]. What struck E. R. Le Count [49],
consulting pathologist to the US Public Health Service, as most unusual
was the amount of lung tissue actually “pneumonic”
seemed “too little in many cases to explain death
by pneumonia.” He saw a thin, watery, bloody liquid in the lung tissue,
“like the lungs of the drowned,” as well as pleural
exudates with small hemorrhages unlike those seen in “any other form of
acute pneumonia of which I am familiar.”
Importantly, he also noted the brain was “quite regularly swollen,” the
kidneys were
“regularly the seat of cloudy swelling,” and the
liver had “superficial fatty change,” (changes noted in children with
salicylate
intoxication; see below). He concluded, “It is
difficult to believe that a disease with so many distinctive features
and…novelty…can
fail to possess a correspondingly definite
etiology.” Brain weight was increased by 100–200 g in ∼50% of persons,
most likely
indicating cerebral edema; cerebral bleeding was
common [9, 10]. Wolbach [50],
chief pathologist at the Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston,
Massachusetts, found bacterial infection in late deaths,
yet a person dying on day 2 exhibited edema and
congestion of the lung, a purpuric rash, and no bacterial growth. He
surmised
a natural progression from the early lesion to the
bacterial lesions: “Two types of lungs stand out.” In early deaths, the
lungs were “dark red and wet…dripping wet.” French [25]
described the lesion as “albuminuous, non-cellular, coagulable.…One
realized that this albuminous exudate…was the probable
cause of the cyanosis.” The exudates were “so
entirely unlike what is met with in any ordinary forms of pneumonia that
they
seemed to be essential importance, the other
changes—haemorrhages, broncho-pneumonia and so on—being super
additions.…”
Although these pathology findings have been induced with the 1918 influenza virus in models [6],
they are also consistent with aspirin toxicity. A study of 177 adults
with aspirin toxicity (and a 15% mortality rate)
found the most common presentations were depressed
consciousness (61%) and respiratory failure (47%), even “at therapeutic
levels” [19].
Autopsy findings for patients with the 26 fatal cases were pulmonary
edema (46%), ulcers (46%), cerebral hemorrhage (23%),
and cerebral edema (31%). Coagulation disturbance
or thrombocytopenia was found in 38%. A detailed autopsy of an adult
with
aspirin poisoning revealed cyanosis, pulmonary
congestion, alveolar hemorrhage, subpleural and subepicardial
hemorrhages,
petechiae, cloudy swelling of the kidneys, and
fatty degeneration of the liver [51, 52]. ARDS-like disease has also been reported [53]. Children with aspirin toxicity (or Reye syndrome) are less likely than adults to present with pulmonary edema [35], although in addition to brain swelling, fatty liver, and cloudy swelling of the kidneys [54, 55], some have pulmonary edema [55, 56], “frothy, blood-tinged fluid” [57], and lung hemorrhages [54].
A report from Camp Dix noted, “The
disease was a veritable plague. The extraordinary toxicity, the marked
prostration, the
extreme cyanosis and the rapidity of development
stamp this disease as a distinct clinical entity heretofore not fully
described.…Pneumonia
is an important but somewhat secondary factor” [58, p 1817]. Salicylate toxicity is often overlooked [59]
because another condition is present, the dose is thought to be
trivial, and the symptoms (hyperventilation, vomiting, sweating,
headache, drowsiness, confusion, dyspnea,
excitement [salicylate jag], epistaxis, vertigo, pulmonary edema, and
hemorrhage)
are nonspecific [34].
In 1918, differentiating progressive salicylate intoxication from
infection pathologically or clinically, “the dyspnea
lasts from a few hours to a day…followed by
respiratory failure, circulatory collapse, convulsions, and death” [40], was almost impossible.
Aspirin Advertisements in August 1918 and a Series of Official Recommendations for Aspirin in September and Early October Preceded the Death Spike of October 1918
In May 1918, usual but highly contagious influenza was publicized in Spain (hence, “Spanish influenza”) [48]. In June, after 6 weeks of usual influenza in Europe, serious pulmonary lesions and deaths increased in those “admitted
to the special inf luenza centres,” especially those with an “old-standing renal lesion” [60]. In July, increased mortality of young Londoners was documented [61].
Farbenfabriken Bayer's worldwide efforts
had left few places lacking aspirin. In the United States, Bayer's giant
factory
produced aspirin under “American” management. After
Bayer executives were charged with violating the Trading with the
Enemies
Act in August 1918, advertisements encouraged
confidence in aspirin [62].
The “Spanish lady” came to the United States and struck 2000 Navy men
in Boston in late August. The majority recovered,
but oddly, 5%-10% developed a “very severe and
massive bronchopneumonia,” which, in many, lacked an accompanying
leukocytosis
[63]. Influenza spread.
Official recommendations for aspirin were issued on 13 September 1918 by the US Surgeon General [64], who stated aspirin had been used in foreign countries “apparently with much success in the relief of symptoms” (p 13),
on 26 September 1918 by the US Navy [29], and on 5 October 1918 by The Journal of the American Medical Association [31]. Recommendations often suggested dose regimens that predispose to toxicity as noted above. At the US Army camp with the
highest mortality rate, doctors followed Osler's treatment recommendations, which included aspirin [48], ordering 100,000 tablets [65]. Aspirin sales more than doubled between 1918 and 1920 [66].
The number of deaths in the United States increased steeply, peaking first in the Navy in late September, then in the Army
in early October, and finally in the general population in late October [67]. Homeopaths, who thought aspirin was a poison, claimed few deaths [11, 48]. Others may have suspected that aspirin was responsible. On 23 November, 1918, Horder [68] wrote in The Lancet that, for “intensely toxic cases…aspirin and all so-called febrifuge drugs must be rigidly excluded from the treatment” (p
695)
In summary, just before the 1918 death
spike, aspirin was recommended in regimens now known to be potentially
toxic and to
cause pulmonary edema and may therefore have
contributed to overall pandemic mortality and several of its mysteries.
Young
adult mortality may be explained by willingness to
use the new, recommended therapy and the presence of youth in regimented
treatment settings (military). The lower mortality
of children may be a result of less aspirin use. The major pediatric
text
[69] of 1918 recommended hydrotherapy for fever, not salicylate; its 1920 edition [70]
condemned the practice of giving “coal tar products” in full doses for
reduction of fever. The occurrence of Reye syndrome-like
illness before the 1950s is debated and consistent
with the fact that children's aspirin was not marketed until the late
1940s.
Varying aspirin use may also contribute to the
differences in mortality between cities and between military camps.
To determine the proportion of
virus-induced pathology, subsequent bacterial infection, and overall
1918 pandemic mortality
attributable to salicylate, experimental models and
analysis of primary consecutive individual treatment and pathology
records
are needed. Prospectively, aspirin should be
investigated in countries where aspirin is used for influenza.
- Received March 29, 2009.
- Accepted June 25, 2009.
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Clin Infect Dis. (2009) 49 (9): 1405-1410. doi: 10.1086/606060
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